Engineering and Science, Volume 9:1, January 1946

C.I.T. NEWS December Meeting THe December Cumna Dinner eeting, he were the University Club. was a great success. There were 70 members and guests present: the class of 33 being represented by six members not had! After a session of elbow bending and the partaking of a most delicious dinner. the meeting was formally opened by President Charles Varney. Vice-President and Program Chairman Al Laws introduced the speaker of the evening. R. G. Kenyon, vice-president of the Southern California Edison Mr. Kenyon gave interesting talk on Labor-He differentiated between labor as a commodity. and the laborer as an individual. Labor as a commodity is priced in accordance with standard economic laws of supply and demand and not according to the buyer's ability to pay. This classification fits ver! accurately into the picture when used with reference to the depression of 14 years ago and the huge demand for labor during the war years. Labor problems date back as far as 1350 A. D. At that time the great plague took place in England and people died in such large numbers that there was a serious labor shortage Mr. Kenyon then went on to give a history of the organization of labor into unions. The earliest known labor union was organized in 1790, but not until 1886. when the Knights of Labor was formed with 700,000 members, did labor unionize into a large organization. the Knights of Labor lasted only six years, and not until the American Federation of Labor was started in 1900 were there any strong unions. With the A. F. of L. came the institution of collective bargaining Mr. Kenyon then described the labor management relations during the war and at the present time. He ended his talk with the statement that management is not hostile to labor unions as such, but to some of the corollary philosophies which have developed in the movement. President Varney then asked for further business. and Al Laws gave a short resume of the coming meetings The meeting was then adjourned. Affiliates With National Organization A dera nizatin own de the Associatio california Scientists was Institute of Technology in November 1945. Purposes of the Association will be to study the problems associated with the relationship between and scientific de velopments, with special emphasis on problems of atomic power; to promote research. particularly nuclear research; to cooperate with other groups which are working to prevent the destructive use of energy, and to convince the public at large of the necessity for taking action designed to achieve this goal. At a special meeting of the new organization December 19. addressed by Dr. J. R. Oppenheimer. former head of the Los Alamos bomb project and by Dr. Linus Pauling, the membership voted to affiliate with the American Federation of Scientists, the national group formed to gather and disseminate information concerning Page 16 developments in science insofar as they affect world peace and the general welfare. Membership in the American Federation of Scientists is open to local associations with at least 25 "qualified" members. Qualified individuals (for voting purposes in the Federation shall be natural scientists, mathematic-ians. or engineers active in scientific works with a minimum of a hachelor's degree or its equivalent, in science or engineering. Physics Research (Continued from Page 3) have been made. To others, however. who see the value of such things to all engineering applications. as well as to those whose minds are only satisfied when everything is finally in order. this presents a challenging problem. At the present time. work is under way in a great many academic and industrial lahoratories on what is roughly designated as the "theory of solids" On the other hand. the field of research that is now so much in the public eye as to be a possible source of embarrassment to physicists, is that of nuclear physics. In a sense, nuclear physics began with the discovery of radio-activity. Its progress was slow until the early when patient and persistent efforts of physicists in the Cavendish Laboratory at Cambridge began to show results, and the first atomic nucleus was broken down. After that time interest grew rate. until the tremendous expenditure of the recent war produced results in the application of nuclear physics to the destruction of people and cities that has brought it to the attention of every thinking person. Most physicists are very unhappy because of the emphasis that has been put upon the destructive possibilities of the results, but many of them believe that by continued research and investigation this new source of energy can he made adaptable to extensive peacetime uses, and to uses that may tend to alleviate some of the causes of war. NUCLEAR RESEARCH Most active physics laboratories, both academic and industrial, are now making extensive preparations for nuclear research. It can be done in a variety of ways, but characteristic of most of these methods is the necessity for relatively large installations and equipment. are those who think that such research should be operated and sponsored by the Government. But the Government has not yet decided to what extent and in what way it may contribute to research of this kind. others who think research would be much more fruitful if sponsored entirely by individual groups. In the mean-time, active preparations are being made in the Kellogg Radiation Laboratory and the Norman Bridge Laboratory at California Institute of Technology for a resumption of nuclear research at something like the point where it was dropped in 1911. Some of the advances during the war can be turned to advantage. but. in general, it is a laborious process of attempting to recover the ground lost while developing lethal weapons of one kind or another. Herbert Ingersoll '26 Herhert Ingersoll was killed December 15. 1944, in Suhic Bay, when he was a prisoner of the Japs aboard a prison ship which was sunk. Herb was in action on Bataan. His wife has received the Silver Star Citation. ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE MONTHLY Dr. William Houston to Be Rice President On March 1, Dr. William V. Houston, professor of physics, and chairman of the Department of Physics, Mathematics and Electrical Engineering at California Institute of Technology, leaves the Institute to become president of Rice Institute at Houston, Texas. John T. Scott, chairman of the board of trustees of Rice Institute, announced the appointment of Dr. Houston who succeeds Dr. Edgar Odell Lovett, president of Rice Institute since its organization in 1908. Dr. Lovett will continue to serve as president emeritus. Dr. Houston received his B.A. and B.Sc. from Ohio State University in 1920 and his Ph.D. from the same Institution in 1925. He came to C.I.T. in 1925, and his work at the Institute has won him a national reputation in the field of physics. Since Rice Institute, like C.I.T., is a school in which the fundamentals of engineering and science are supplemented by a generous study of the humanities, Dr. Houston's career will continue in an educational atmos. phere congenial to him. All of the Institute Staff and alumni wish Dr. Houston success and satisfaction in his new duties. New Associate Dean Appointed At a meeting of the Board of Trustees of the California Institute of Technology held on December 3, 1945, Foster assistant professor of Physics was appointed Associate Dean of Freshmen. L. Winchester Jones re- mains Associate Dean of Upper Classmen, and the title of Franklin Thomas is changed to Dean of Students rather than Dean of Upper Classmen. Fill in and send to: News Editor, Engineering and Scienco Monthly 1201 East California Street, Pasadona 4, Calif. Namo Class_ Home address Information about myself (marriage, position, type of work, change of position or location, etc.) Information about another alumnus Name. Class.. JANUARY 1946 MISSING ADDRESSES Tho residence, business, or military addresses of the following Alumni Office.-Editor Name Class Aggeler, William F....'25 Alexander, Chas. K..'37 Allen, Robert N. Anissmoff, Constantin ..'26 Applegate, Lindsay M Arnold, '33 '38 '14 '40 Name Walla Bell, Richard W... '40 '41 '22 Bennett, Foster C. Berry, Frederick Biddle, Russell Blackman, Roy ''41 Briggs, Thomas H., '39 Call, Raymond Campbell, John S Chang-Hung-Yuan Chao, Chung-Yao Chase, Carl T..... Cheng, Ju. Yung Clark, John D.. Cook, David E... Cox, Charles S... '29 '39 "25 '39 '15 '26 '41 '24 '26 '30 *26 '34 '40 '37 '28 .. 30 '34 '41 '44 '22 '27 Cox, Raymond E Curci, Harold V. 44 Davidson, Leonard E...'00 '33 Djanab, Kamal '38 '37 Easton, Robert L. '39 '30 '26 :22 .26 '21 Hugh B *32 Frye, Calvin B... '31 Fuetsch, Frederic T.'38 Garrett, James R. Gates, Clinton E. .11 :30 Gentner, William E '40 Gershzohn, Morris Gillies, Kobert '38 .22 Gilliland, Ted R. ."27 Go, Chong-Hu Goering, Kenneth J. Goodhue, Elbridge A. '39 "20 Gould, Martin Graham, Thomas C.. .."28 Granger, Warne E Graul, Donald P. .26 Gray, Boris A... '37 '24 Green, Wm. Jeffrey...'40 .35 *29 .40 .25 '26 :42 . 33 '40 .32 '31 Henry nuel Andre Steph rich inthro Norm: aul A. dwarc Hug Alfre Jr. ..... Koons, Harry M.. Labanauskas, ..'30 •38 -'38 .38 '35 '30 .30 .44 '35 Levy, Henri A. Lewis, Stanley M. MacKnight, Ro Magden, John L Marsland, John E ..32 .35 -'36 .']l '38 '33 .27 Martin, R. S Matthews, Elmo S. '28 .32 .35 .36 H McDaniel, Gene McFadden, Wn McLeish, Chas. W. McIntosh, Jame ..34 .'38 .34 '40 Louis H.'27 Michal, Edwin B... .33 '30 '35 '41 '37 Thos. S.'38 .28 Morgenstierne, S. S.'32 De Wolfe O..... '31 Murdock, Keith '33 Murphy, Jos. N.. Myers, Charles S. .41 Neal, Wilson H.. '39 Nelson, Julius ....'29 Page 17 Name Class Newton, Walter L. 14 Norquest, Kenneth S..'39 Nysewander, Cecil W. '38 Odell, Raymond H '37 Ofsthun, Sidney Oiman. Samuel. A. *38 •29 Orr, James M. *38 Overhage. Carl '31 Parker. Percy E. 26 Parish, Elliott W 39 Parry, H. Dean. '37 Peters. Ralph '41 Peterson, Frank F. *27 Pierce, John R. *33 Plank, Dick A.... '33 Portman. Herman G., Jr. 35 Putt, Donald L Ravitz, Sol F.. Reynolds, Roland W...'27 Name Schoeller, Chas. Schultz, John '35 Shaw. Shores, '41 '37 :05 Smith. Smith, Smith Smith Snow. Kuchardson, Omar B...'30 Ridenour, Steele. F. *42 36 '25 '37 '33 36 *26 *41 *41 *39 Wm. Rinehart, John S.. Robertson. Francis A. Robertson, Stone. Stone, Stone. W.. Jr. Sutton. Romoli, John A. Rosencranz, Richard, Jr. '38 Rumbaugh, L. H. '32 Rupert, Claud S... ?41 Russell, Richard L... "33 Russell, Wm. J., Jr.'43 Sandberg, Edward C...'29 Saurenman, Dean F... '33 Schafer, Scherb, Ivan Saney '36 ..'35 Schlecter, Arthur H...'33 Tatom. Taylor, F. *36 '24 .40 '38 :36 *36 '34 :29 '32 *39 *18 Thoma Tieman Tilker. Tobin, Bernard Towler, John W.. Turner, Francis '32 *28 *41 *38 '40 '30 Life Insurance Annuities LYLE H. CHENEY New York Life Insurance Company RYan 1-6191 Security Building SYcamore 2-7141 Pasadena, 1, Calif VROMAN'S Sy: 3-1171 Ry: 1-6669 Boot & Storiod . Office Equipmen 1271 E. Colorado St INSURANCE BROKERS EMETT & CHANDLER W. P. STORY BLDC.OS ANGELES TRinity 8881 ATKINSON LABORATORY LOS ANGELES Photographic CALIFORNIA Photographic Balsh B. Altinson, Chemicals Page 18 Name Class Ibert ....'29 Leonard F. 36 William :28 *27 *40 PERSONALS T WiLL be helpful if readers will send personal items concerning themselves and others to the Alumni Office. Great interest has been shown in these col-umns, but more information is required. Do not hesitate to send in facts about :42 yourself, such as change of position or location, present job, technical accom- '29 plishments, etc. Please help. *31 -Editor. '37 '27 :24 *40 *32 '32 '38 31 *34 1918 CORLISS A. BERCAW, who holds the position of district sales manager for General Motors Corp., electro-motive division, Chicago, Ill., made a business trip to Los Angeles in November in connection with testing a 6,000 h. p. diesel electric locomotive between Salt Lake City and Los Angeles on the Union Pacific. :25 '32 H.'41 .40 ..'37 '25 •28 *38 ALFRED A. NEWTON passed away on November 12 in a Boise, Idaho, hospital of cerebral hemorrhage. Mr. Newton was er route home from Seattle, where he had gone to meet his sister on her return to the states after liberation from a Japanese B. *26 33 Wolfe, '41 Wolochow, David '24 Wyckoff, Donald *44 Yates. Donald N '39 Yensen, Trygve D Yost, *27 Don *26 Zahorski, Adam T. :31 Zimmerman, Don Z..'36 in civic affairs in the city of Santa Monica, Calif., where he lived and was professionally a civil engineer, holding an executive city engineer of the City of San Diego and assumed office on the first of December. Mr. Smith was city manager at Ontario, Calif., for six years, resigning to take the San Diego position. BLEITZ CAMERA COMPANY "The West's Largest Photo Supply House" 5338 Hollywood Blvd. Calif. Don Bleitz Rotary Positive Pumps Blowers Sutorbilt "Is Well Built" 008 E. Slauson Av os Angeles, 11, Cal Superchargers FANS D. DWIGHT TAYLOR Consulting Physicist Special Engineering Calculations Numerical Integration-Subdivision Calculations 234 E. Colorado Street, Pasadena 1, Calif. SYcamore 6-5673 TECHNICAL DESIGN COORDINATOR CO. Offers metric or lispective Serimay DraWingiled Line and Air Brush Illustrations, Etc. 6218 Ventura Boulevar STate 4-4905 ncino. Cal ANgelus 0580 ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE MONTHLY PETROLEUM vs. PLUTONIUM* By CLARK GOODMAN INTRODUCTION Fig. I is only one of the various possible systematic arrangements of the elements that occur in nature. or have recently been produced. The elements are arranged atomic energy. President Truman's an- nouncement of the bombing of Hiroshima on August 6. 1945, the air was filled with radio reports. Virtually every newspaper and magazine in the country followed with feature articles on atomic power. These are con- tinuing and, in addition, we are being exposed to a in order of increasing atomic number. indicated by the figure immediately below the symbol of each element. Nuclear physicists think of the atomic number Z as the number of positively charged particles, called protons, contained in the core or nucleas of an atom of a given element. A second important number in the periodic table is the atomic weight. listed just above the chemical symbol. flood of over-enthusiastic extrapolation and speculation. It seems particularly timelv that an accurate evalua- tion he made of the present and future competition to petroleum of this new source of energy. The symbol A will be used for atomic weight. On this scale the lightest and simplest of elements, hydrogen, has an atomie weight of 1.0080. As Z = 1, hydrogen must contain only one proton in its nucleus. The single FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES electron that swirls about this nucleus has a weight of only about 0.0005 units. Thus hydrogen nuclei are the The study of atomic energy constitutes part of the charged particles. protons, that constitute building blocks general field of nuclear physics. The first step in the in all nuclei. and the relative weight of each understanding of atomic energy is a definition of the elementary particles before incorporation in such nuclei specialized words and symbols used. is 1.0075. ie. slightly greater than 1. *Abstract of paper presented at General Session of the American Petroleum Institute, Chicago, Illinois, November 15, 1945. 0 1.0087 1.0080 H neviron 4.003 He 2 4003 He 2 20.183 Ne 10 6.940 Li 3 22.997 Na 11 9.02 Be 4 24.32 M8 12 10.82 B 5 26.97 Al 13 VV 12.010 C 호 28.06 Si /4 14.008 N 7 30.98 15 16.000 8 32.06 S 16 VI. 19.00 F 9 35.457 CI 17 TEE 20183 Ne 10 39.944 18 ㆄ 묭 啰 | 39.944 39.096 40.08 45.10 習 47.90 5095: 52.01 54.93 55.85 58.94 58.69 63.57 65.38 6972 72.60 7491 78.96 79916 83.7 K 19 Ca 20 Sc Ti V Cr 21 22 23 24 Mn 25 Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr 83.7 Kr 36 13/.3 Xe 54 222 Rn 86 85.48 87.63 88.92 91.22 RO 92.91 95.95 017: 10291 1067 07881124 1376 870 1217612761 12592135 Sr Y Zr Cb 37 38 39 40 41 Mo RU Pd Ag Cd'In Sn So Te 42 132.91 137.36 138.9* 178.6 43 44 49 50 180.88 183.92 186.31|190.2 195.23 197.2 200.6 204.39 207.21 209.0 (2107 CS Ba Hf Ta Re Pt AU HE TI Pb Bi 55 80 81 82 83 226.05 (227) 232.12 Ra 87 89 90 No Pu 88 AC Th 23/ a 238.07 (239) (239) 94 2 140.13 140.92 144.27 Ce 58 Pr Nd 59 60 61 6 150.43 152.0 156.9 Sm EU Gd 62 63 64 10 二 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 65 162.46 64 94 1672 1694 173.04174.99 Rare Earth Dy: Ho Er YbLU Elements 66 67 6869.70! 71 Fig. I 1945 Page 4 ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE MONTHLY B A 10 NUCLEAR BINDING ENERGY PER PARTICLE IN MEV 9 8- 해 7- 6- Ba FASON ENERGY РЬ ENERGY OF f TERRESTRIAL RADIOACTIVITY SOLAR ENERGY 0-3OMIYOXM, The interlocking particles that bind the protons to-and prevent their flying apart by electrostatic tepulsion, are electrically neutral, and for this reaso are called neutrons. They have an atomic number zero and, relative to oxygen, a weight of 1.0087. All nuclei are considered to be made up of neutrons and protons only. However, for a given element, i.e., a given Z, the number of neutrons present may vary somewhat. variation, of course, results in different weights for the individual atoms of the element, even though they all have the same number of protons. The name "isotope" is given to such modifications of the same element. Even hydrogen is not simple. Common hydrogen, referred to above. has a single proton in its nucleus, but there is a rare form of hydrogen that has both a proton and a neutron in its nucleus. For obvious reasons, this is called neavy hydrogen (or deuterium). and water containing an unusually high proportion of this hydrogen is called heavy water. As we shall have occasion to note later. uranium consists of three isotopes, a common form with 92 protons and 146 neutrons known as a rare variety with 92 protons and 143 neutrons known as and a very rare form with 92 protous and 142 neutrons known alternately as or Ull. Naturally: with so many different isotopes present in various abundances, the average weight of a given element would not be expected to be a simple multiple of the weights of the constituent particles, the proton and the neutron. However, there is an additional explanation for the observed values of the atomic weights. The weight of an aggregation of neutrons and protons is JANUARY 1946 120 140 160 1 180 200 220 ATOMIC WEIGHT IN ATOMIC MASS UNITS Fig. 2 always less than the sum of the weights of the separate particles. for example. the weight of two protons anc two neutrons is 2 X 1.0075 - 2 X 1.0087 = 4.0324 whereas the weight of helium (less two electrons) is seen from Fig. 1 to be 1.0029. This decrease of about 0.03 weight units takes place when the four constitutent par ticles coalesce to form the helium nucleus. reaction that expresses this fact can be written symboli. 2, 4-0015+2101-0087 → 2104-0029 + 0.03 atomlo-moight unst (1) Iwo fundamental axioms in physics require that the sum of the subscripts (charges) on the left must equal the sum on the right, and the sum of the weights on the left must equal the sum on the right. The coefficients in front of the symbols must, of course, be included in these considerations. In the foregoing equation, "0.03 atomic-weight unit" must appear on the right to balance the weight on the left. THE SOURCES OF ATOMIC ENERGY Einstein postulated, and ample experimental evidence has since proved, that weight (or, more exactly, mass) and energy are equivalent and related by the simple expression: Energy = constant X mass (2) The proportionality constant in this relationship is so large that the production of a pound of helium from hydrogen † neutrons would liberate 29 X 1010 B.t.u. of heat energy. Alternately il would require the expenditure of this prodigious amount of energy to break one pound of helium into hydrogen and neutrons; i.e., the helium nuclei are bound together with this amount of energy. The formation of helium from elementary particles Page 5 Thermal Diffusion Method Gaseous Diffusion 2 Through Barriers High pressure, Outside tube is cold Inside tube is hot 3 Centrifugal 4 Electro-Magnetic Low pressure Porous barrier Magnet poles Stream of charged uranium particles Fluid uronium circulates, tends to concentrate lighter U235 at top. Lighter U235 gas When mixture of gasified U235 more readily through barrier. and U238 is spun rapidly, lighter U235 tends toward center Fig. 3 Splitter In strong field of giant magnet lighter U235 particles are deflected more than U238. Half way round, splitter separates two streams. symbolized above does not take place on the earth, because it requires very high temperatures. However. this reaction is believed to account for the tremendous thermal productivity of the sun, and takes place in six steps involving carbon and nitrogen as nuclear catalysts. A graphical representation of the relative binding energies of all known nuclei is given in Fig. 2. The binding energy per nuclear particle B/A is plotted against the atomic weight A for all known nuclei from hydrogen, A = 1, to heavy nuclei of A = 240. As we have already seen, the binding energy of helium nuclei is much greater than that of hydrogen nuclei and neutrons sepa-rately. Hence the B/A for helium lies well above that of hydrogen. The significance of the curve now becomes evident. Transformations which result in changes from a lower portion of the curve to an upper portion are exothermic, and vice versa. However, there is one important difference between the changes at low values of A as compared to those at high values. Certain heavy nuclei can be made to split into two or more fragments of medium atomic weight A at ordinary temperatures (0-200° C.). This process is known as nuclear fission, and the energy released by such a change has been designated as the fission energy in Fig. 2. Pound for pound, or on the basis of the number of nuclear particles involved. the fission of heavy nuclei generates about one-seventh as much energy as the formation of helium from hydrogen in the sun. It is small wonder that this process constitutes a potent source of energy. Apparently, there is a minimal change in binding below which fission does not occur. Although nearly all of the heavy elements have been tested, fission apparently is appreciable only in those elements above about 210 in atomic weight. Of these elements, only uranium and thorium occur in appreciable quantities in terrestrial materials. Their presence indicates that uranium and thorium must be relatively stable, otherwise they would have long since disappeared during the two to four billion years since this planet was formed. Uranium and thorium are not completely stable, but undergo spontaneous transformations that result in ele- Page 6 ments of lower atomic weights. Radioactivity is the term used to describe these changes. In Fig. 2 the small shift from A = 238 to A = 206 for the uranium series, and from A = 232 to A = 208 for the thorium series, releases sufficient energy to account for all the internal. heat flux of the earth. The emission of an alpha ray (2He*) by radioactive decay is similar to nuclear fission in that both processes result in the splitting of a nucleus into two parts, forming two new nuclei. However, these related phenomena differ in a number of important respects. NUCLEAR FISSION In the first place. radioactive decay is spontaneous, and not susceptible to any control. On the other hand, to produce fissions it is necessary to strike the nucleus with a particle or with radiation. There are a number of such nuclear detonators, but neutrons are by far the most effective. The absence of electric charge (2 = 0) these particles to penetrate easily; whereas protons, deuterons, and alphas-being positively charged mare strongly repelled by the large electrostatic fields of heavy nuclei. The probability of a neutron-producing fission in a uranium or thorium nucleus is dependent upon a number of factors. not the least in importance being the velocity of the neutron. In fact. the less abundant isotope? 020935 s very intrequently split by other than relatively siowly moving neutrons, the probability of fission being in versely proportional to the velocity of the neutrons. On the other hand. thorium nuclei {ooth?32 only) and ge1238 nuclei undergo fission under neutron bombardment only when the neutrons have high energies, called "fast neu-trons." With slow and intermediate-velocity neutrons the following transformations orcur: (3) 210, 0nt (510m and intermediate) → 921239 + 8 • (4) ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE MONTHLY The product nuclei do nol undergo fission, but are less stable that the original nuclei, being beta-radioactive with half-lives of 26 minutes and 23 minutes, repectively. The action of fast neutrons on 90Th232 and g2u238 and of slow neutrons on clei contain too many neutrons to be stable, several beta-disintegrations and possibly a neutron-decay are 92035， results in fission into two slightly unequal nuclei. The process is highly exothermic and considerably more complex than any of the foregoing reactions. One possible sequence for PROPERTIES OF PLUTONIUM In the preceding section it was mentioned that slow nd intermediate velocity neutrons or 920238 produce a beta-radioactive isotope, 920235 will serve to illustrate the nature of the changes involved: se 235 + un' (520m) g21236 → 5686 +36kr + Zgn° + HEAT (5) This reaction occurs almost instantaneously and hence is explosive in character. The fission products, 56 Ba and 36K5, fly apart with tremendous velocities. Because these nu-iranium is composed of 0.7 per cent 920-35 he decay of this substance results in the formation of ew element of atomic number 93, called neptuniu 19318239) leptunium, in turn, emits another beta particle, becon g plutonium and 99.3 per cent 920230 {0,P4339). which emits an alpha particle, thus decaying to 929235 but so slowly that in effect it is a stable element. Plutonium is fissionable with slow neutrons, and hence Minerals: Pitchblende Carnatite Concentration, Separation and Purification of URANIUM Ore Uz08 ▶ Metallurgical Treatment-Chemicals, Heat and Know-How PURE URANIUM - METAL U238-99.3% u235-0.7% Casting and Aluminum-Coating of URANIUM Radioactive Gases Heated Water, plus. Radioactivity, out SHIELD Gammả Ràys, PURE GRAPHITE Neutrons Canned URANIUM Rod of BORON or CADMIUMS 0 URANIUM-GRAPHITE Chain Reacting Pile (Remote Côntrol) = URANIUM Cylinders In "GRAPHITE Lattice Cooling-Water, In '？ is:wEio. URANIUM and PLUTONIUM Purification of -PLUTONIUM Separation of PLUTONIUM from URANIUM Deactivation and Removal of Fission Products Fig, 4 JANUARY 1946 Page 7 is equivalent to 1235 in this regard. However. plutonium is sufficiently differ. ent from its progenitor. 0238 that it can be separated from uranium by chemical methods. The importance of this fact is made clear in a subsequent section. SOURCES OF NEUTRONS Thus far nothing has been said concerning the sources These uncharged nuclear duced either by fissions or hy the collision of nuclei high velocities. There is a small neutron component in cosmic radiation, but much greater intensities are produced by bombarding certain light elements (for exam-ple, beryllium) with alpha particles: deuterons, or pro-tons. Radon or radium mixed with beryllium provides a compact source of neutrons. It was by means of neutrons from such sources that fission was initially produced and studied. Deuterons or protons accelerated to a high velocity in a cyclotron can produce even more intense sources of neutrons. However, enormously greater intensities are required to release significant amounts of atomic energy. As indicated in Equation (5), neutrons are released fission process itself. Under proper conditions, secondary neutrons produce further fissions which release more neutrons to produce still more fissions. and so on. If the number of these self-induced fissions exceeds even by a minute amount the number produced by the initial neutrons, this avalanche-like reaction results. The propagation of the reaction is extraordinarily rapid For this reason, unless carefully controlled, such actions are violently explosive. The critical condition under which a self-sustained chain reaction occurs constitutes the crux of atomic energy as known today. CRITICAL SIZE In the official U. S. government publication, the now famous Smyth report.* this condition is summarized as follows: "The question of whether a chain reaction does or does not go depends on the result of a competition among four processes: "(1) Escape of neutrons. "(2) Non-fission capture of neutrons. "(3) Non-fission capture by impurities. "(4) Fission capture. If the loss of neutrons by the first three processes is less than the surplus produced hy the fourth. the chain reaction occurs; otherwise, it does not." wo methods can be used to limit the escape of neu The first is to enlarge the amount of activ material to the point where the bulk of the neutrons produced is captured within the mass of the fissionable material itself. This procedure establishes a critical size "The heaviest stable isotopes of these tin flements are 58 Ra138 and 36 Kr86. "Neptunium (half-life 2.3 days) years) do not occur in nature in any appreciable quantity. uranium in the periodic table (Fig. 1) and hence have been named for the planets Neptune and Pluto, which lie beond the planet Uranus. Page 8 above which the chain reaction takes place! The second method of decreasing the loss of neutrons by escape is the use of a reflector surrounding the material. Heavy elements serve as reflectors of fast neutrons relatively light neutron hounces off a heavy nucleus with very little change in speed. If reflection with a substantial decrease in velocity is desired. light-weight elements, called "moderators." The loss of neutrons by non-fission capture is equally important in determining the critical size. Certain ele-ments, such as boron and cadmium, are very accessible to neutrons and behave like neutron sponges, because they so readily "soak up" neutrons. Most elements pos. sess this characteristic to a considerably smaller degave For example, nitrogen, iron, nickel. and vanadium cross-sections: magnesium, carbon. aluminum, zine. tin, bismuth, and lead have very small capture cross-sections for neutrons. In establishing the critical size for the chain reaction, it is necessary that even minute traces of cadmium and horon be eliminated and that only traces of the medium cross-section elements be present. All essential structu- materials must contain only elements with small capture cross-sections. Because uranium and thorium ores are inevitably associated with elements of large or medium cross- section, a self-sustained reaction is impossible, regardless of the size of the ore deposit. In addition, hecause of the large proportion of 1238 in ordinary uranium, the non-fission canture of neutrons 1238 predominates over the fission capture by 1238 and u235, even in a very large mass of this material. Hence, not are uranium ores stable to fission, but even pure uranium metal does not undergo spontaneous fission bulk. An important exception to this conclusion is discussed in the following section. PRODUCTION OF FISSIONABLE MATERIALS In the foregoing, thorium has been included with uranium as a source material. Because of the susceptibility of ,235 to slow neutrons and the possibility of producing plutonium from 0238 the major effort of the Manhattan project centered o1 the direct or indirect use of uranium. No information of atomic energy. Publication from Prince en Are PulPrae Printoried as of August, 1945. Arailable The icincal sires el ario e maeriale are military secteis. Prior to the 1235 six inches in diameter might be sufficient to sustain a chain reaction. This amount of 735 ould weigh about 100 pounds. The Smyth report implies that somewh ss than too kilograms is necessar ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE MONTHLY A large part of the efforts of the project was devoted to the difficult task of separating the isotopes of uranium. 1238 and v235 are essentially identical in chemical properties; hence, they are separable only by processes depending on the small (1.3 per cent) difference in atomic weight. Four large-scale physical methods have been used to produce for atomic bombs (see fig. 3). Several other methods offer promise, not progressed beyond the laboratory stage. While these developments in the separation of uranium isotopes were taking place, another compartment of the Manhattan project was sludying methods of producing plutonium. A most ingenious process was evolved which not only yields large amounts of this fissionable material. but appears as the most likely industrial source of atomic energy. It is in the production and utilization of plutonium that petroleum may find an atomic competitor. The major steps involved in the production of plutonium are shown schematically in Fig. 4. The crude source material is pitchblende, carnotite, or some other After mining and milling, the ore is concentrated and treated chemically to obtain the pure oxide, U,s. The next step requires the preparation of essentially spectroscopically pure uranium metal. This ery exacting metallurgical work requires considerable now-how, as do all of the other specialized techniques which have been so expeditiously developed under the Manhattan project. The metal, of course, contains the same proportion of isotopes as the original ore: viz., 99.3 per cent and 0.7 per cent u235. It is cast into bars, and is coated with a thin impervious layer of very pure aluminum to protect the uranium from direct contact with the cooling water. This "canned" uranium is then placed in a lattice structure made of highly purified graphite. The size of this so-called pile is very precisely determined. It contains just slightly the critical amount required io maintain a chain reaction. A simplified explanation of the operation of the pile is as follows: When the pile has been assembled to the proper size, it is triggered by stray neutrons from cosmic radiation. These produce a few fissions of either 235 or 238 depending on whether these initiating neutrons are slow or fast. The secondary neutrons resulting from the fissions are fast and, hence, cannot produce additional fissions in although they may cause fissions in 1238. The most probable result, however, is that these secondary neutrons will be slowed down by collisions to intermediate velocities before producing such fissions. Because of the predominance of 238 most of these neutrons are captured to form .239 However, by having pure carbon in the form of JANUARY 1946 graphite alternating with the uranium, many of the secondary neutrons are slowed down to thermal veloci-ties. Because the capture of neutrons by 0735 increases inversely with the velocity of the neutrons, the probability of producing fissions in 1235 is greatly increased by the use of the graphite modera-tor. In this way a self-sustained chain reaction produced. Of course, a large amount of cooling must be provided in order to limit the rise in temperature. Special pipes, made of elements with small capture cross-sections, provide channels for the cooling water. The magnitude of this cooling problem can be appreciated from the fact that an appreciable rise in temperature of the Columbia River takes place when one of the piles is operating at the Hanford plant in Washington. production of a pound of plutonium per day releases energy in the form of heat at the rate of about 1,000,000 The pile and its products are intensely radioactive and hence extremely dangerous to personnel. For this reason the operation of the pile and chemical treatment of the ranium, after removal from the pile, must be carrie on by remote control within air-tight shields several fee in thickness. Following removal of the fission products, the relatively small amount of plutonium is separated from the bulk of the parent uranium, after which the plutonium is purified. This material is then ready for incorporation in an atomic bomb. UTILIZATION OF ATOMIC ENERGY The purpose of the present discussion is to consider the possible eflects of atomic energy on the petroleum industry, not on military strategy. The fission reaction releases about 32 billion B.t.u. per pound of 1735 or plutonium, and the radioactive decay of the fission products releases an additional eight billion B.t.u. This energy is more than a million times the heat of com. bustion of a good grade of coal (14,000 B.t.u. per pound) or of 100-octane gasoline (22,000 B.t.u. per pound). Yet the enormous amount of heat produced in the present piles is wasted. By means of heat exchangers, it probably would be relatively simple to use some of this energy for household or other low-temperature heating. In order to utilize such heat for industrial purposes, it would be necessary to operate the pile at temperatures comparable to those of modern steam power plants. Apparently, the problems involved in this transition are very large. However, if developments in this field are allowed to flourish unhampered by military restrictions and government controls. it seems probable that these problems can be solved in a reasonably short time, and that atomic energy will be available for industrial the next decade. Vahe question will then ber Oes atomic power compete with petroleum, coal, and water power economic basis? Too many unknowns are in- volved to allow other than speculation, but in all likelihood the answer will not be clearcut. Inasmuch as coal is generally used as fuel for large installations, it would appear that natural uranium piles Page 9 may compete with coal. particularly in the generation of electric power. The piles could be located near the populated areas. but sufficiently remote to prevent radiation hazards. The heat released would be used to produce steam to drive turbo-electric generators. This electric power would actually be a by-product from the production of plutonium and radioactive fission materials and the treatment of substances by radiation. Some of the heat from these large piles also might be used to operate thermal or diffusion plants for separating 0735 from uranium. The natural uranium and graphite piles, which may compete with coal, are far too bulky to be used in units for mobile power. By using uranium that has been enriched in 135 or to which plutonium has been added. the size of the pile can be considerably reduced. The use of heavy water (deuterium oxide) as a moderator in place of graphite also allows substantial reduction in size. ahead would be achieved by pulling out the cadmium "throttle." A distinct advantage for naval vessels would be that "refueling" would he infrequent. An additional consideration would be that the atomic fuel is nonin-fammable. Shielding would be a major problem, and would add considerably to the weight and size of the Such applications of atomic energy might be entirely ruled out on this basis alone. 1735 and plutonium in excess of the critical sizes can be assembled-provided cadmium, boron, or some other neutron absorber is preesnt in sufficient amount to prevent the chain reaction. If the absorber were gradually removed until the critical point is reached, a controlled release of energy from a very compact source might be possible. However. with or plutonium, this procedure would be extremely sensi-tive-a slight movement of the absorber might result in a violent explosion. For this reason, compact units will probahly use a mixture of 0235 and v23B containing not more than about 20 per cent of the lighter isotope and some moderator in order to obtain a safe degree of controllability. Even more problems than arise with the larger units must be solved before diminutive atomic engines will he possible. For military purposes such engines might supply for guided missiles or robot planes. order to compete seriously with diesel oil must be adaptable to auto- mobiles. For these purposes the shielding problem would be most acute. The compactness gained in using atomic fuel might be more than offset by the large amount of shielding required. Of course, all of these considerations have been limited to the source of atomic energy now known; i.e., to nuclear fission of heavy ele-ments. It will be recalled that the consolidation of light elements into medium-weight elements releases compara. Page 10 ble amounts of energy. Although such nuclear syntheses have never heen accomplished large scale, they have been achieved in minute amounts in the laboratory. If future research extends the range of available atomic energy to include the light elements. many of the foregoing limitations may be removed. In addition, these light elements would probably be far more plentiful than the relatively scarce fissionable elements, uranium and thorium. Within the bounds of available information, it would appear that petroleum and coal will probably continue for at least another generation as the primary sources of energy for transportation and heating. Water power and coal will probably generate most of the electricity during the next fifty years. Although atomic energy may gradually enter as a competitor, its most extensive applications will probably be in new fields of human Industrial processes at extremely high tem-ultra-high-speed transportation, the produc tion of radioactive materials for industrial and medical as well as for some scientific investigations, the manufacture of rare elements by transmutation, and the treatment of materials by radiation, are among the more likely specialized uses of fission energy in addition to the continued production of atomic explosives. For some time the more conservative members of the petroleum industry have been concerned about what the world would use for fuel when the petroleum and coal reserves were exhausted. Prior to 1935 new discoveries more than offset the increased consumption of petroleum. During the past 10 years the discovery rate has rapidly declined while production has soared. Although there will be a postwar respite, this trend is likely to continue for some time. However, the petroleum industry now has somewhat less occasion to regret the expenditure of a large part of the earth's supply of chemical energy. By the time this source is exhausted there should be plenty of atomic energy available. Although this change seems inevitable, it will certainly not be rapid. Few of us will live to drive atomic automobiles or fly jet planes powered by nuclear energy. When this time arrives. there will still be a petroleum industry, but it may have changed rather remarkably in Instead of petroleum being primarily used for fuel. it will be the raw material for all kinds of organic substances. The refinery of the future will be more of a chemical factory than a producer of fuel. To Establish Firm in Brazil FOLLOWING his resignation as vice-president and director of Northrop Aircraft, Inc., Theodore C. Coleman of the class of 1926. left with his family in November for Brazil. where he will establish his own company to be devoted to distribution and maintenance of aircraft and other U. S.-manufactured products in South America. A resident of Pasadena since 1922. when he entered Caltech, Mr. Coleman has been prominent in business and civic affairs in southern California for 20 years. Prior to his joining the Northrop Company shortly after its formation, he was vice-president and partner of the old southern California banking firm of Banks, Huntley Mr. Coleman spent two months last summer in South America on a business trip. and heard news of V.J Day by shortwave while in the interior of Brazil. He will live in Sao Paulo with Mrs. Coleman and their two children. ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE MONTHLY ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE Monthly Vol. IX, No. 1 January, 1946 Trends of Research in Physics By W. V. HOUSTON HYSICS is a very broad subject. It includes the Phasic knowledge and techniques of practically all branches of engineering and technology, and, in the minds of many people, includes the whole of these sub-jects. Nevertheless. the actively pursued lines of research in physics cover only a small part of this field and change from time to time. In a sense, this is because physicists share with other people the desire to be in style, the desire to be doing something that other people think is of importance and about which they can talk. another sense, however, this change of emphasis in research stems directly from the fact that progress is being made, that some subjects are becoming well under-stood, and that it is necessary to look in other directions for new worlds to conquer. HISTORICAL CHANGES It is interesting to note some of the historical changes during the past 100 years. At about the middle of the 19th century a great deal of attention was directed to thermodynamics. The law of the conservation of energy and the laws concerning entropy were formulated and checked experimentally by various outstanding physicists known to us. After this first rapid development in the field, there remained a great deal of detailed work, but most of the underlying developments came during a rather short time. At a slightly later period in the 19th century, possibly from about 1865 to the end of the century, a good deal of attention was directed to electromagnetic phenomena. It was during this period that Maxwell formulated his electromagnetic equations and that Hertz established experimentally the existence of electromagnetic radiation. Out of this has grown all of the tremendous electrical and communications industry, but it is not now a major field of research in physics. Activity along these lines at the present time is usually called engineering, and consists in the applications of Maxwell's equations to various specific situations. With the beginning of the 20th century, physicists began to turn their attention towards the atomic and electronic constitution of matter. There grew out of this the establishment of the existence of electrons and the measurement of their properties. During the first JANUARY 1946 15 years of the 20th century this was regarded as an important held for research in physics, but as it became applied to more and more practical uses it became a branch of engineering almost of its own, and during the last few years the term "electronics" has become familiar to almost every person. The discovery of X-rays and the discovery of radioactivity stimulated research in these directions at about the same time. X-rays have now become a tool in many branches of engineering and of medicine, but the X-rays rarely a direct object of about 1910, directed to the properties of the atoms, and using X-rays spectroscopic and electronic techniques, and every other available tool, scientists fell avidly on the analyzing and understanding the properties of the atoms. developed the quantum mechanics, but since about 1930 it has been felt that problems associated with the external structure of atoms are essentially solved. Out of this has grown again a great many engineering and industrial applications. particular, the study of spectroscopy, which was orig inally one of the more esoterie branches of physics, has become a standard means of quality control in many PRESENT FIELD At the present time, there are roughly two kinds of things that physicists attempt to do. On the one hand, there still remains a great deal to be done in understanding the way in which the atoms build up solid pieces of matter. The difficulty seems to be largely a matter of complication. It is believed that if one had the proper mathematical techniques, the properties of solid matter could be described accurately and quantitatively in terms of the properties of the individual atoms. Nevertheless, this has not been con- clusively demonstrated, and even if it were true, there still remains the problem of finding the proper techniques. In one sense, this study of the properties of matter is regarded by many physicists as uninteresting; it is a kind of mopping-up process after the major advances (Continued on Page 16) Page 3 C.I.T. NEWS December Meeting THe December Cumna Dinner eeting, he were the University Club. was a great success. There were 70 members and guests present: the class of 33 being represented by six members not had! After a session of elbow bending and the partaking of a most delicious dinner. the meeting was formally opened by President Charles Varney. Vice-President and Program Chairman Al Laws introduced the speaker of the evening. R. G. Kenyon, vice-president of the Southern California Edison Mr. Kenyon gave interesting talk on Labor-He differentiated between labor as a commodity. and the laborer as an individual. Labor as a commodity is priced in accordance with standard economic laws of supply and demand and not according to the buyer's ability to pay. This classification fits ver! accurately into the picture when used with reference to the depression of 14 years ago and the huge demand for labor during the war years. Labor problems date back as far as 1350 A. D. At that time the great plague took place in England and people died in such large numbers that there was a serious labor shortage Mr. Kenyon then went on to give a history of the organization of labor into unions. The earliest known labor union was organized in 1790, but not until 1886. when the Knights of Labor was formed with 700,000 members, did labor unionize into a large organization. the Knights of Labor lasted only six years, and not until the American Federation of Labor was started in 1900 were there any strong unions. With the A. F. of L. came the institution of collective bargaining Mr. Kenyon then described the labor management relations during the war and at the present time. He ended his talk with the statement that management is not hostile to labor unions as such, but to some of the corollary philosophies which have developed in the movement. President Varney then asked for further business. and Al Laws gave a short resume of the coming meetings The meeting was then adjourned. Affiliates With National Organization A dera nizatin own de the Associatio california Scientists was Institute of Technology in November 1945. Purposes of the Association will be to study the problems associated with the relationship between and scientific de velopments, with special emphasis on problems of atomic power; to promote research. particularly nuclear research; to cooperate with other groups which are working to prevent the destructive use of energy, and to convince the public at large of the necessity for taking action designed to achieve this goal. At a special meeting of the new organization December 19. addressed by Dr. J. R. Oppenheimer. former head of the Los Alamos bomb project and by Dr. Linus Pauling, the membership voted to affiliate with the American Federation of Scientists, the national group formed to gather and disseminate information concerning Page 16 developments in science insofar as they affect world peace and the general welfare. Membership in the American Federation of Scientists is open to local associations with at least 25 "qualified" members. Qualified individuals (for voting purposes in the Federation shall be natural scientists, mathematic-ians. or engineers active in scientific works with a minimum of a hachelor's degree or its equivalent, in science or engineering. Physics Research (Continued from Page 3) have been made. To others, however. who see the value of such things to all engineering applications. as well as to those whose minds are only satisfied when everything is finally in order. this presents a challenging problem. At the present time. work is under way in a great many academic and industrial lahoratories on what is roughly designated as the "theory of solids" On the other hand. the field of research that is now so much in the public eye as to be a possible source of embarrassment to physicists, is that of nuclear physics. In a sense, nuclear physics began with the discovery of radio-activity. Its progress was slow until the early when patient and persistent efforts of physicists in the Cavendish Laboratory at Cambridge began to show results, and the first atomic nucleus was broken down. After that time interest grew rate. until the tremendous expenditure of the recent war produced results in the application of nuclear physics to the destruction of people and cities that has brought it to the attention of every thinking person. Most physicists are very unhappy because of the emphasis that has been put upon the destructive possibilities of the results, but many of them believe that by continued research and investigation this new source of energy can he made adaptable to extensive peacetime uses, and to uses that may tend to alleviate some of the causes of war. NUCLEAR RESEARCH Most active physics laboratories, both academic and industrial, are now making extensive preparations for nuclear research. It can be done in a variety of ways, but characteristic of most of these methods is the necessity for relatively large installations and equipment. are those who think that such research should be operated and sponsored by the Government. But the Government has not yet decided to what extent and in what way it may contribute to research of this kind. others who think research would be much more fruitful if sponsored entirely by individual groups. In the mean-time, active preparations are being made in the Kellogg Radiation Laboratory and the Norman Bridge Laboratory at California Institute of Technology for a resumption of nuclear research at something like the point where it was dropped in 1911. Some of the advances during the war can be turned to advantage. but. in general, it is a laborious process of attempting to recover the ground lost while developing lethal weapons of one kind or another. Herbert Ingersoll '26 Herhert Ingersoll was killed December 15. 1944, in Suhic Bay, when he was a prisoner of the Japs aboard a prison ship which was sunk. Herb was in action on Bataan. His wife has received the Silver Star Citation. ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE MONTHLY Name Class Newton, Walter L. 14 Norquest, Kenneth S..'39 Nysewander, Cecil W. '38 Odell, Raymond H '37 Ofsthun, Sidney Oiman. Samuel. A. *38 •29 Orr, James M. *38 Overhage. Carl '31 Parker. Percy E. 26 Parish, Elliott W 39 Parry, H. Dean. '37 Peters. Ralph '41 Peterson, Frank F. *27 Pierce, John R. *33 Plank, Dick A.... '33 Portman. Herman G., Jr. 35 Putt, Donald L Ravitz, Sol F.. Reynolds, Roland W...'27 Name Schoeller, Chas. Schultz, John '35 Shaw. Shores, '41 '37 :05 Smith. Smith, Smith Smith Snow. Kuchardson, Omar B...'30 Ridenour, Steele. F. *42 36 '25 '37 '33 36 *26 *41 *41 *39 Wm. Rinehart, John S.. Robertson. Francis A. Robertson, Stone. Stone, Stone. W.. Jr. Sutton. Romoli, John A. Rosencranz, Richard, Jr. '38 Rumbaugh, L. H. '32 Rupert, Claud S... ?41 Russell, Richard L... "33 Russell, Wm. J., Jr.'43 Sandberg, Edward C...'29 Saurenman, Dean F... '33 Schafer, Scherb, Ivan Saney '36 ..'35 Schlecter, Arthur H...'33 Tatom. Taylor, F. *36 '24 .40 '38 :36 *36 '34 :29 '32 *39 *18 Thoma Tieman Tilker. Tobin, Bernard Towler, John W.. Turner, Francis '32 *28 *41 *38 '40 '30 Life Insurance Annuities LYLE H. CHENEY New York Life Insurance Company RYan 1-6191 Security Building SYcamore 2-7141 Pasadena, 1, Calif VROMAN'S Sy: 3-1171 Ry: 1-6669 Boot & Storiod . Office Equipmen 1271 E. Colorado St INSURANCE BROKERS EMETT & CHANDLER W. P. STORY BLDC.OS ANGELES TRinity 8881 ATKINSON LABORATORY LOS ANGELES Photographic CALIFORNIA Photographic Balsh B. Altinson, Chemicals Page 18 Name Class Ibert ....'29 Leonard F. 36 William :28 *27 *40 PERSONALS T WiLL be helpful if readers will send personal items concerning themselves and others to the Alumni Office. Great interest has been shown in these col-umns, but more information is required. Do not hesitate to send in facts about :42 yourself, such as change of position or location, present job, technical accom- '29 plishments, etc. Please help. *31 -Editor. '37 '27 :24 *40 *32 '32 '38 31 *34 1918 CORLISS A. BERCAW, who holds the position of district sales manager for General Motors Corp., electro-motive division, Chicago, Ill., made a business trip to Los Angeles in November in connection with testing a 6,000 h. p. diesel electric locomotive between Salt Lake City and Los Angeles on the Union Pacific. :25 '32 H.'41 .40 ..'37 '25 •28 *38 ALFRED A. NEWTON passed away on November 12 in a Boise, Idaho, hospital of cerebral hemorrhage. Mr. Newton was er route home from Seattle, where he had gone to meet his sister on her return to the states after liberation from a Japanese B. *26 33 Wolfe, '41 Wolochow, David '24 Wyckoff, Donald *44 Yates. Donald N '39 Yensen, Trygve D Yost, *27 Don *26 Zahorski, Adam T. :31 Zimmerman, Don Z..'36 in civic affairs in the city of Santa Monica, Calif., where he lived and was professionally a civil engineer, holding an executive city engineer of the City of San Diego and assumed office on the first of December. Mr. Smith was city manager at Ontario, Calif., for six years, resigning to take the San Diego position. BLEITZ CAMERA COMPANY "The West's Largest Photo Supply House" 5338 Hollywood Blvd. Calif. Don Bleitz Rotary Positive Pumps Blowers Sutorbilt "Is Well Built" 008 E. Slauson Av os Angeles, 11, Cal Superchargers FANS D. DWIGHT TAYLOR Consulting Physicist Special Engineering Calculations Numerical Integration-Subdivision Calculations 234 E. Colorado Street, Pasadena 1, Calif. SYcamore 6-5673 TECHNICAL DESIGN COORDINATOR CO. Offers metric or lispective Serimay DraWingiled Line and Air Brush Illustrations, Etc. 6218 Ventura Boulevar STate 4-4905 ncino. Cal ANgelus 0580 ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE MONTHLY O. S. LARABEE, a lieutenant-colonel in the Army, has been discharged from mili-any servin an haephone co. he South 1926 DOCTOR A. M. BALL, employed by the Hered e Pale during the ton, pal of November. Dr. Ball has been involved in the development of rocket propellants. 1927 COLONEL TED COMBS returned to the states by plane from Tokyo in November and is now living at Long Beach, Calif. Colonel Combs's last assignment was with the Construction Brigade, Sixth Army. COMMANDER R. T. ROSS has been separated from the Navy for several weeks. Commander Ross was stationed at Pearl Harbor in charge of personnel work for fleet schools. EDWIN W. TEMPLIN, formerly Re le phow emalora oriethe Electrica, Research Products of Western Electric Co., at Hollywood, Calif. 1929 BEVERLY F. FREDENDALL has joined the organization of Frederick Hart & Co., Inc., of Poughkeepsie and New York City, which makes Hartron and Recordgraph sound recording equipient. Mr. Freden- dall was formerly with N. B.C., working both in New York and Chicago. LESLIE SCOTT is reported on his way home from Berlin, and expected to be back in California by Christmas. Les was lieutenant-colonel and commanded the 208th Engineer Combat Battalion under the First and Ninth Armies from Cherbourg across France and Germany until they became part of Task Force Berlin, TOM EVANS has taken over the duties of head of the civil engineering depart- ment at Georgia Tech. Tom was a lieuten-ant-colonel in the U. S. Army Engineers, on duty in the Pentagon Building during the war. LIEUTENANT COLONEL WALTER GRIMES, after serving two months in the South Pacific theater, returned in September and is now in San Francisco. 1930 DAVID SHEFFET visited on the campus in October. David is working in the lab- oratory of Stanolind Oil and Gas Co., as research group supervisor. LIEUTENANT-COMMANDER FRANK H. FORD visited on the campus early in November while on terminal leave. working in ship repair and battle damage and over a year in the European theater, at which time he was engaged in rebuild. ing the French fleet. Frank is married and father of a son, Preston, 18 months of age. C. E. BUFFUM visited the Institute late in November on a vacation trip to southern Mr. Buffum is technical group supervisor in the research laboratory of the Stanolind Oil and Gas Co., Tulsa, Okla. F. W. HUTCHINSON left the Univer-position as full professor at Pur- due University. JANUARY 1946 LEWIS H. GOSS has just been engineer of Brawley, Calif. Lewis was previously employed at the U.S Engineers' office. LAWRENCE HALLANGER, who spent some time during the South Pacific theater in the service of Pan American Airways and the Navy as an aerological oficer, is now located with Pan Amer ican at San Francisco. COMMANDER HARALD OMSTED, who has returned to the states from being in command of the 94th Construction Bat-talion, is now on terminal leave. mander Omsted's executive officer has been Crawford '33, and he was relieved by Commander Perry Boothe LIEUTENANT-COMMANDER GEORGE W. VAN OSDOL is stationed at San Francisco in the assistant industrial manager's office, the duties of which are radar installation and maintenance and removals. George is the father of a son and daughter, aged five and a half and two and a half LIEUTENANT ROBERT P. JONES is hone on terminal leave after tioned 19 months in the Admiralty Islands. JOHN C. STICK, JR., has been a member of the staff of the division of physical war research at Duke University for the past three years. With the closing of the LIEUTENANT-COMMANDER ERICK PEHOUSHEK, having service three and one-half years, has been released from service and intends to make his home in California. Commander Pehou-shek was attached to the Shangri-la, Task which made a carrier raid on Japan near the end of the war. NEWELL POTTORF is employed in the patent department of Stanolind Oil and Gas Co., in Tulsa, RAYMOND F. H. BOOTHE Angel for Parkinson & Parkinson, of Los Angeles, Calif. ALAN GROBECKER is working with Gilfllan Bros. as a design engineer. was a lieutenant in the Navy before dis- ANTHONY EASTON was married December 3 in New York City to Peggy DOCTOR WILLIAM F. NASH, formerl instructor of mechanical engineering at the Institute, is now a metallurgist with Naval Research Laboratory in DONALD HUDSON, assistant professor in mechanical Seate of abse e Trom nie Inine and i employed with Naval Ordnance Research CAPTAIN CHARLES A. MORSE has been discharged from military is working at the Southern California Telephone Co., Los Angeles, Calif PRIVATE RALPH W. JONES, JR., has Works at Pasco, Wash. (Manhattan Engineering District). Until October 1, when entered service, Ralph was employed with C.I.T. Section 5, Chemical Engineer- LIEUTENANT BARRY DIBBLE is home on terminal leave and intends to locate in southern California. Barry has been at Iwo Jima, Okinawa, and Tinian with Patrol Bombing Squadron 118 and later with the U.S. S. Curtis. LIEUTENANT-COMMANDER B. F. BEANFIELD has transferred his address from Resident Inspector of Naval Material, Philadelphia, to the same at Brooklyn, N. Y. ROLAND STONE, who has been working at Inyokern, is now employed by the Superior Honey Co. of Los Angeles. MAJOR PAUL ENGELDER, who has been in active service with the Marines in the Pacific area since October, 1941, is expecting an early return to civilian status and an opportunity to return to the Insti tute for graduate work. ENSIGN CYNOR BIDDISON is a navigator aboard the store ship "Valentine" Ensign Biddison brought his ship through the typhoon in the Okinawa area to ride the storm out for two days while waves broke over the flying bridge of the ship. At the end of the year, Ensign Bid-dison expects to put into San Francisco for another cargo, then return to sea for an- CARL SCHRADER visited the Institute ployed by Bureau Ships, Navy Department, Washington, D. C. MAJOR GILBERT VAN DYKE returned from Asheville, N. C., Headquat-ters Weather Service and is now a reserve officer on inactive status. Major Van Dyke was stationed 18 months at Nome, Alaska, a stepping-off point for lend-lease to Rus-sia, and also spent seven months at Ed-monton, Alberta, Canada. MAJOR FRED ODER just completed a course at the Command and General Staff School at Ft. Leavenworth, Kan., and will return to headquarters at Asheville, N.C. DOCTOR R. C. BRUMFIELD has changed positions from Aerojet Engineering Corp. to a civil service job. He is the father of a baby girl. CAPTAIN GERALD P. FOSTER, a captain in the Marine Corps, is coming back to the states soon. 1941 ENSIGN STANLEY STROUD is stationed at the U. S. submarine base, New London, Conn. LIEUTENANT (j.g.) ROGER WAL-LACE reported to the China Lake pilot plant, Inyokern, Calif., from European duty. 1942 LIEUTENANT PAUL VEENHUYZEN, who since 1942 has been attached to Naval Page 19 LIEUTENANT EARLE A. CARR has been transferred to Mare Island, Calif., to serve in the electronics division. Lieut. Carr is the father of a baby boy, Wayne, born October 31. DWAIN BOWEN, who has spent the past three years as research associate at the radiation laboratory at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, has returned to the Institute for graduate work. ALVIN R. PIATT has opened an office in Long Beach, Calif., in which he will be engaged work. in product and machine design MAJOR RAYMOND C. BAIRD is on terminal leave until January. Major Baird returned from Iwo Jima where he was in charge of the Army Air Force Weather Service, serving ground, sea, and air forces. Major Baird was at Atsugi Air Base in Japan on the day the surrender was signed, for the purpose of getting Japanese weather interception data. JOHN MILES resigned his position at Lockheed Aircraft, Ine., to join the staff in the electrical engineering department at U. C. L. A. 42 has taken Miles's former position with 1943 LIEUTENANT (j. g.) GLENN BRACKEN prior to Day spent months at Vernon, duty with naval in engineering inspection charge of supervising tests relative to the acceptability of material purchased by the Navy for war materials. Lieut. Bracken served three months on sea duty as an officer of Pacific patrol. STANLEY SNOWDEN, an instructor in the physics department of the Institute, is CHECK YOUR INSULATION PROBLEM INDUSTRIAL PLANTS PETROLEUM REFINERIES POWER PLANTS FACTORIES PROCESSING REFRIGERATION SHIPS MARINE HAS THE ANSWERS Marine RSULATIO ENGINEERING & SUPPLY CO. 941 East Second Street • Los Angeles • Michigan 8071 Page 20 the father of a son, Peter, born on November 7. ALBERT T. ELLIS is a member of the scientific staff, Columbia University, located in Di- vision of War Researc New York, N.X. Empire State Building, 1944 ENSIGN LEWIS L. GRIMM and Miss Edith May Barton were married on August 2 at Yorba Linda, Calif. ENSIGN CHARLES G. ALMQUIST is stationed aboard the "Mighty Midas" in the vicinity of the Philippines. Ensign Almquist reports, "The Philippines is the country of blue waters, green islands, and red sunsets- -and temperatures of 100° and rain of 20 to 30 inches a month." F. ENSIGN WILLIAM T. COLLINGS has been appointed aide to the commanding officer of the Seabee Base at Camp Endi-cott, R. I. SECOND LIEUTENANT CLIFFORD CUMMINGS, Signal Corps, spent a 10-day leave at his home in Venice, Calif., late in Navember. When leave moated, Cheated route to the Army of Occupation. Theater He was an instruc- tor for four months at Camp Edison, N. J. LIEUTENANT J. R. BORDEN is an instructor at Camp Edison in Navy navigational type radar for installation on Army type transports. LIEUTENANT LEROY SANDERS, formerly an instructor at Camp Edison, left in November for Germany to instruct in Signal Corps work. ENSIGN GEORGE SHOR, communica- tions officer on the U.S. S. Sarita (AKA 39), is engaged in the task of bringing veterans back from Japan and Okinawa areas. JACK WARREN is now a civilian and is employed by Knudsen Creamery Co., Los Angeles. Jack was an aviation cadet at Tyndall Field, Fla., for four months, taking radar training for P-61's. ENSIGN THOMAS W. NORSWORTHY is serving as assistant engineer on the destroyer U.S. S. Bache. ENSIGN JOHN W. MARSHALL transferred from Engineering Division, Bureau of Aeronautics, Washington, D. C., to Ames Aeronautic Laboratory, Moffatt Field, Calif ENSIGN R. G. MeANLIS, engineering officer on the destroyer U.S.S. Uhlmann, returned to the states early in December. His ship was docked at Seattle for over-haul, after which it will be taken to San Diego for inactive duty. 1945 ENSIGN RICHARD E. SPRINGER, commissioned at Notre Dame Midshipmen's School, left for St. Simons Island to attend tactical radar school for two months, after which he will be assigned sea duty. ENSIGN HALCYON BALL, commis- sioned at Columbia Midshipmen's School, visited the Institute the middle of Novem-ber. Ensign Ball was assigned to a troop ship (AP.126) as a deck officer. ENSIGN EUGENE BOLSTER, commissioned at Notre Dame, visited at the Institute in November and was to report to San Francisco for assignmet on a patrol craft for overseas duty. ENSIGN ROBERT F. SCHMOKER left Ft. Schuyler for Camp Endicott, R. I ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE MONTHLY OPERATING CONTROL TECHNIQUES By S. E. SOHLER HE meaning of operating controls in the aircraft industry is best expressed by their three t basic principles: 1. The operating plan of action must consider all limiting factors and be possible of attainment as a total program as well as for individual projects. 2. The operating plans, including policy instructions where applicable, must be transmitted to concerned dersonnel throughout the organization in adequate 3. Progress information must be available with suff-cient speed, coverage, and competent evaluation to provide a basis for intelligent action at all levels of supervision. The true test of manufacturing management's ability is the devising and revising of operating control tech. niques to meet changing conditions effectively and eliciently. Because of space limitations, no attempt will be made in this article to cover the many phases of operating controls involved in a major aircraft plant. However. two typical control problems encountered at the California Division of North American Aviation, Inc., during the war will be described, along with the operating control techniques which were developed at that time and which have been used to advantage on similar problems The philosophy behind the development of these tech- is expressed by the following occupies a prominent place in the office of one of the foremost aircraft executives: "It may not always be the best policy to adopt the course that is the best technically. but those responsible for policy can never form right judgment without knowledge of what is right technically." This type of approach is especially cogent in the aircraft industry, where the complex problems involved, combined with the so-called "human element" many people concerned, make complete dependence on theory and statistics impractical, and make operations without them almost an impossibility. TOOLING A. Problem The problem of tool loading was a chronic headache even during the pre-war period, when contracts were small and comparatively little tooling was justified. Whenever the tool shops appeared to be overloaded, the problem was usually overcome during a comparatively short period by working overtime and Saturdays, or even hiring a few additional tool-makers temporarily However, wartime conditions made some form of control necessary for several reasons: 1. Contracts were much larger and, therefore, much more elaborate tooling was justified. Most of this elaborate tooling had to be completed for the first ship, unless there was adopted the very expensive alternative of building temporary tooling for the first ship and replacing with permanent tooling 2. As tooling departments were already working 50 to 60 hours per week and tool-makers were very scarce, any overload condition could not be appreciably alleviated by additional overtime or additional hiring. 3. Many more production workers were dependent upon the tools to be made than ever before, espe-sally because of the inexperience of productio lepartment labor available. In view of the labo shortage, idleness of productive labor resulting from lack of tooling could not be tolerated. An analysis of past experience showed that the tooling shortages usually become critical during the last 30 to 60 days prior to completion of the hrst ship. The reason for this became apparent when the total of tooling hours required for the basic tooling on the hrst ship was plotted against a time scale, with the distribution of these hours based on the assumption that all tools were 30,000 40,000 г 30,000 AT RIGHT: FIG. Tooling load chart. :20,000 10,000 -—— --- January Februory March April May Nuna July August JANUARY 1946 September Page 11 Total Adjust Number Name 85185088 0 0 3 10 2325 0205 0 0 05 90t00b09D9 457530% 0 0 WEEKLY TOOLING COMPARISON SCHEDULE Contract North American Aviation, Inc. Note: Heading on vertical column denotes due date of tool. to be constructed just in time to meet the true required completion date of the tool as needed to support the "in-work" date of the part or assembly involved. (See Fig. 1, Curve 1.) Curve 2 in the illustration indicates the total anticipated tooling capacity over the period considered. Curve 3 indicates the portion of that capacity already allocated to other projects. In actual practice these two lines would normally vary during such a period, but they have been shown as fixed values for the purpose of simplifying this example. Point A indicates the date on which suficient engineering information was available to enable tooling hours to be started. Point B indicates the tentative date set for completion of the airplane, and Point C indicates the date by which the basic tooling for the airplanes had to be completed in order to support that completion date. From this graph it was immediately apparent that tooling shortages during the 30 to 60 days prior to airplane completion were inevitable it all tools were started lust in time to meet the completion date, as there just wasn't enough capacity available during that period to expend the hours required. The control problem then became levising a means of insuring that enough tooling hours vere expended early in the project to complete all basic tooling by the required time. increasing and decreasing of the capacity to conform to the load represented by Curve I, was impossible under conditions of wartime labor shortage. The first step was to redistribute the total basic toolin: hours required over the period between Point C in such a way that the load would not exceed the available net capacity. (See Fig. 1, Curve 4.) required that the expenditure of tonling hours reach a maximum by the date indicated by Point D, and a check was made of the engineering release schedule to determine whether or not sufficient engineering information would be available for the tooling departments to If not, the completion date of the airplane was set back. or the tooling policy was revised to call for less permanent tooling for the first ship. This investigation and planning satisfied the principle of making sure that the total plan of action (including all other commitments), as well as the plan for the specific project, was physically possible. Satisfaction of the second principle of operating controls (transmission of the plan) presented additional problems of technique. Two possibilities were available: 1. Rescheduling of suficient tools from their true due dates to earlier due dates, such that the distribution of the hours load per schedule corresponded to 2. Leaving the true due date on each tool, and through some other device insuring that the tool departments expended hours on this project in accordance with Curve 4. The first possibility had several inherent disad- (a) Giving specific tools due dates appreciably earlier than their true dates tended to lessen the shop's confidence in the dependability of schedule dates, especially if tooling supervision were on occasion chastised for missing due dates on rescheduled tools which it coul individually prove weren't really needed for six or eight weeks. (b) There was a possibility that the engineering department would not meet its own release dates on those specific parts for which specific tools had been rescheduled earlier. Therefore, it was decided that the due date to be used on individual tools would in every case be the true due date as actually required by the master schedule for the first ship. In this way, confidence of the individual tool-maker in the schedule was not impaired, and a behind-schedule tool obtained reasons that were provably val priority treatment for • The plan of action for the project, when issued to tooling supervision, included a curve similar to Curve 4, along with an ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE MONTHLY explanation of the need for the expenditure of hours in accordance with that curve. This device unnecessary the risk of our-guessing tooling departments merely expended hours on whatever information was available early, so long as the total expenditure conformed to Curve 1. In addition to the due date on the tool order it was found advisable to prepare a so-called parison schedule (rig. 2) which kept a summary of current tool orders be due date in front of all levels of supervision, along with the estimated hours required for the construction of the tool, and the actual cumulative hours expended on each tool to date. This type of schedule was for the purpose of satisfying the first and second principles at the same time, with a minimum of The third principle of operating controls was also satisfied in this case by a weekly comparison between Curve 4 and the actual weekly hours' expenditure during the early phases of the project, along with an analysis of the reasons for any deviation. This was subsequently supported by the weekly comparison schedule noted above, during the latter phases of the project, when individual tools became due. PLANT CONVERSION Early in 1944 the Army indicated a desire for increased quantities of P-5l's, which were currently in production at the California Division at 10 per day. However, in view of the manpower shortage it was agreed that an increase could be accomplished only by discon. tinuing the production of B-25's, which were currently running at five per day, but which were also being produced in appreciable quantities at North American's Kansas City plant. Thus, it became management's problem to plan and execute an orderly and efficient conversion of the California Division plant from B-25's plus P-5l's to full P-5l production, starting with the following basic factors: 1. A total of approximately 10,000 direct workers was employed, with 6,000 working on the P.51 and 4,000 on the B-25. 2. Employees were quitting at the rate of 200 to 300 ver month and new hires were not quite able to seep pace with this turnover rate. 3. The B-25 project occupied the larger of the two final assembly high-bay areas, and the P-51 had to be moved into this area before production rates could be appreciably increased. Also, supporting P-51 major assembly departments had to be relo. cated or expanded, or both, to provide the addi. tional capacity necessary. 4. Duplicate tooling would be required on most major assembly jigs and on some subassembly This problem included the determination jig which assemblies would need any duplicates. how many would be needed. and when they would be required, as as the finding of tooling capacity to construct them. A preliminary survey indicated that it would take approximately three weeks to convert the B-25 area to accommodate the P-51 project. In other words, for a three weeks' period hundreds of employees working on the B-25 would be available, but the P-51 production rate could not sufficiently increase in its existing area to use all the capacity thereby made available. Any attempt to lay off these employees for this period and JANUARY 1948 subsequently rehire them was out of the question, in view of the already high turnover rate and the dificulty of obtaining new employees. . On the other hand, merely allowing these employees to stand around during that period would he very bad on morale, to say nothing of the wasted effort involved. B. Solution The satisfaction of the first principle of operating controls required considerable investigation and analysis because of the many factors involved. The first step was to reexamine the conversion plans, which, in the preliminary survey, were estimated to require three weeks in the critical final assembly departments. By specifying the maximum prefabrication of conveyor line structure and equipment, and by planning that the actual construction work in the B-25 area take place station by station immediately following the last airplane as it went down the line, the planned final assembly conversion time was cut to 10 days. An analysis of the operations in the P-5l final assembly area was made, showing that by "supercharg. ing" or over-manning each station with some of the personnel released from the B-25 final assembly,: temporary production rate of 14 per day could br obtained while the P-51 project was still located in its original area. Also, production rates above 14 per day were planned for the P-51 as soon as possible after the scheduled relocation into the larger area. On the basis of the production schedules arrived at in the manner described above, a total direct labor load was computed for the period involved in the conversion. (Fig. 3, solid lines). This total labor load for the factory assumed distribution of hours' expenditure prior to airplane completion; i.e., it assumed that hours would be expended on parts and assemblies as actually required by the next assembly or by the final line and with normal minimum storage time allowed. In anticipation that some net loss of personnel would be inevitable as a result of this conversion, the maximum P-51 scheduled rates were set at a level which would not require a peak in excess of 9,500 direct employees, the most optimistic figure possible under the circumstances, as normal turnover rates would easily bring about this reduction during the two months that no new hires The gradual decrease of employee requirements beyond the peak of 9.500 was a recoonition of the hours per unit improvement that would be experienced after the maximum production rate (20 per day) had been attained. It was immediately apparent from this graph that some additional action would be required to avoid the necessity of a layoff or a period of mass idleness. A reexamination of employee turnover experience indi cated that termination rates appreciably higher than average could be expected during the conversion to full P-51 production, as the reorganization of departments and the regrouping of personnel were certain to result in many dissatisfied employees who were merely waiting an excuse to quit. Therefore, it was decided that plans were to be based on the assumption that approximately 1,000 direct workers would be lost as a result of the The tentative final assembly completion schedules mentioned above. which had been based on the physical limitations of the areas involved, were left intact, and it was assumed that the volume of work represented by Area A, Fig. 3, could be rescheduled to take Pago 13 Adjusted Total 10,000 Total A__ 8,000 6,000 P-51 Direct Employe 4,000 B-25 2,000 AT LEFT: FIG. 3 P-51 and B-25 labor loads for conversion period April May June July place earlier, as indicated by Area B. The following plans were devised to carry out such a program: 1. The problem was comparatively simple in those detail and functional subassembly departments which had been fabricating both B-25 and P-51 parts. It merely required that sufficient additional P-5I parts be scheduled into those departments immediately behind the end of the B-25 contract, such that the full capacity of the departments would be used. This meant that an appreciable number of P.51 detail and subassemblies would be fabricated prior to actual need, and arrange- ments were made to provide storage area for these. The schedule was so adjusted that this excess of parts was gradually absorbed during the four to five months after the conversion, by which time all schedules were faired back into line on normal minimum storage basis. 2. The plans temporarily to "supercharge" the P-51 assembly lines prior to moving were re- checked and left as described above. 3. In the major assembly departments supplying final assembly, a similar temporary "supercharg-ing was planned. However, in some maior assem. bly departments, such as those building wings, flaps; control surfaces. etc., it was planned that inefficient "supercharging" would be avoided as much as possible by specifying that the production of spares be temporarily stopped and the 14 per day rate required to support final assembly obtained by temporarily diverting that spare capacity to production parts. It was intended that the behind-concurrency status of spares production resulting from the action described above would he compensated for at a later date by increasing Page 14 August September the production rate to a maximum in those departments prior to the time final assembly schedule production rate had reached maximum. This con- centration on major assemblies for final assembly actually had to start several weeks prior to the time the final assembly rate went above 10 per day. in order that additional assemblies would be on hand by the date the stationized conveyor lines were moved. This additional supply of major assemblies had to be available to fill the increased number of stations in the new conveyor line lay-outs. Only by filling these stations immediately after the move, could the excess final assembly personnel be kept busy at the earliest possible moment and the production rates increased quickly thereafter to use up the backlog of stored details and subassemblies. The plans described above were laid out for each department and a load chart similar to Fig. 3 prepared for each. When totaled, these charts closely corresponded to the desired total load as expressed in Fig. 3, and the plan of action for production departments was approved by management. 1. After all departmental production schedules had been established in the manner descrihed above. the current hours-per-unit reports were consulted to determine those jigs on which one or more duplicates would be required to support 20 per day plus spares, and a chart plotted for each. indicating future production rates, including spares. (See Fig. 4). On each of these charts there were plotted the dates on which each duplicate would be required to meet the increased rates, using current unit hours as a basis for this decision. (Fig. 4. A.) In the case of major jigs ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE MONTHLY involving a considerable expenditure of man hours, a careful check of the hours per unit expended on that item during the last several months was made, and if appreciable additional improvement on hours per unit could be anticipated, such consideration was used in deciding whether or not all of the duplicate jigs would actually be neces-sary. In a surprisingly large number of cases it found that some of the additional tooling required on the basis of current hours per unit would not actually be required by the time maximum production rates were scheduled, because of the justifiably expected improvement in hours performance which would be obtained by that time. (Fig. 4, B). Individual duplicate tooling requirements determined in the manner de- then extended into a total man hours load, and this in turn added to the snown loads on other projects in the tooling departments. In this particular case, no adjustec hours load curve had to be used, but, if necessary. the control device described in the first section of this article could have been used. The second principle of operating controls was satisfied as follows: 1. In accordance with normal practice, all detail part work orders had been given in-work and completion schedule day numbers prior to issuance to the shop. The temporary acceleration of P.51 detail fabrication schedules then merely required the adjustment of the conversion chart between schedule day numbers and calendar dates. This revised chart was issued to all stockrooms and control stations handling detail work orders. 2. As all assemblies were already scheduled individually on a weekly comparison schedule form, of the same general type as the tooling comparison form described in the previous section, the specific plans for each assembly department were quickly accurately expressed 3. Departmental rearrangement plans were plotted on a master chart by industrial engineering, all the timing was checked for proper coordination, and specific detail move notices were issued to cover each area involved. The third principle of operating controls was satisfied principally by the existing progress reporting mediums, such as work order status in detail departments and weekly progress reports in the assembly departments on the comparison schedule form mentioned above. Tooling progress was followed on the tooling com-described above. follow-up on the conversion work was instituted and closely watched. As a result of the operating controls described above, the last B-25 was completed on schedule to the minute. On a Saturday and Sunday, nine days after the last B-25 had been completed, the P-51 final assembly department was moved to the converted B-25 area. Monday, 14 P-Sl's were completed off the new line, and this rate was increased to 16 per day one week later, as planned. As a result of the manpower controls used during this period, the unit cost of the P.51 rose only two per cent, and that for a period of only two weeks, after which the previous improvement trend con-tinued. The conscientious adherence to the principles of operating controls had paid off a thousandfold in relation to the development and maintenance expense of an organization to provide those controls. Wins Legion of Merit geology at the Colorado School of Mines, and now United States Director of Industrial Production in Europe, recently was awarded the Legion of Merit for success in initiating and developing materials control and the procurement of metals and minerals for the Armed Services. Colonel Boyd was a staff assistant to the director of materiel in the headquarters of the Army Service Forces between March, 1942, and April, 1945, during which he "was responsible in large part for the successful operation of the entire system of allocation by the War Production Board of critical raw materials in such manner as to assure a naximum war effort." AT RIGHT: FIG. 4 Typical duplicate tooling survey sheet showing effect of employed hours per 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 : 12 Production Reguired Aruming current Hrea A Duplicato Toding - B. Duplicole Tooling Required Assuming Currant His/Unit 5 Jigs Required 7-1 7-8 7-15 7-22 7-29 8-5 8-12 B-19 8-26 9-3 9-10 JANUARY 1946 9-24 10-1 10-8 10-15 10-22 10-30 Page 15 ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE MONTHLY •JANUARY 1946 PUBLISHED BY CALIFORNIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ALUMNI ASSOCIATION Exterior type DOUGLAS FIR PLYWOOD adds beauty and durability to outside walls! EXT.- D.F. P.A. TRADE MARK REG. U.S. PAT. OFF Exterior type plywood, easily identified by the grade trade-mark" shown above, is made with completely water- proof synthetic binder. For resin outside ing, ⅜" thick, sid- Sound 1- Side grade of Exterior plywood is generally spe-cified. Exterior type plywood should (EXT - DFPA) be used for all permanent outdoor structures and for interior purpose where moisture conditions are unusual THE attractive home above is a typical example of Douglas fir plywood DRI-BILT construction - with outside walls of Exterior type plywood. Used as flat panels, plywood provides a smooth, streamlined mod- ern effect. A wide variety of siding treatment is possible through the use of battens, grooves, flush joints and mouldings. Best of all-Ex-terior type plywood, applied over PLYSCORD sheathing, adds durability as well as beauty. For plywood's cross- laminated construction makes it strong, rigid eliminates the necessity for horizontal bracing. See Sweet's File for Architects. For additional information, technical data and litera-ture, write: Douglas Fir Plywood Association Tacoma 2, Washington For prices or delivery information, see any lumber dealer in the United States. All dealers will soon have plywood in stock. =DFPA EXT EXT-OFPA EXT-DEPA PLIPANEL D.F.P.A RK REC. U. S GENUINE PLYWALL TRADE MARK Douglas fir Plywood WALLBOARD iNSPECTIO GENUINE -PLYSCORD-SHEATHING D. ERA GENUINE DOUGLAS FIR PLYTORM Concrete Form Panel D. F. P. A. DOUGLAS FIR PLYWOOD LARGE, LIGHT, STRONG, Real Wood PANELS EXT. - D. F.P.A TRADE MARK REC oF. SPECIFY DOUGLAS FIR PLYWOOD BY THESE "GRADE TRADE-MARXS" BY-LINES WILLIAM V. HOUSTON Dr. William V. Houston has re- cently been ap- pointed president of Rice at Houston, Texas. succeeds Edgar Odell Lov- ett, president of Rice Institute since its organiza- in Lovett 1908. will Dr. Tinue to serve as president emeritus. Dr. Houston has been on the faculty of enterna nstitute of technolory since 1925, where his work in the recogmined tionally. At present he is professor of the De- partment Physies, and Mathematies Electrical Engineering at C.I.T. • CLARK GOODMAN Dr. Goodman re- cerred is gree chemical engineering from the California In- stitute of Tech- nology in 1932 and a Ph.D in physies Massachusers Institute of Tech- nology in 1940. Не became with associated Union Company as OiL re- search chemist in 1932, and in 1933 was employed by Kelco Company as sales engineer. Since 1934, Dr. Good- MATTER beer Massachusetts the Institute faculty of of Tech- nology and now Postor of assistant professor in the physies department. STANLEY E. SOHLER Mr. Sohler re- ceived his B.S. degree in mechanical engineering California from tute of Insti-Technol- ogy in After graduation he was employed by North American Aviation, scheduler, in In 1913 being appointed head of manufae-turing coordination department. november. 1945. he In became asso- ciated with Menaseo Company as Manufacturing manager. production control Caption for Cover Illustration: Huge ladles in Trafford the foundry Westinghouse pound pouring the 167,- Ter and station turbine being built at the Company's Steam Division. ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE published Alumni nthly the 25th MONTHLY of each month Association. echnolouy. 1201 California tast gle copies Annual Street $2.50: Entered second at the Post Office al Pasadana class Unturia September 1939. under the Marty All Publishers' of contained herein Repro- written authorization. JANUARY 1946 ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE monthly The Truth Shall Make You Free CONTENTS FOR JANUARY, 1946 Trends of Research in Physics By W. V. Houston 3 Petroleum vs. Plutonium By Clark Goodman Operating Control Techniques By S. E. Sohler 11 C.I.T. News Personals . . 16 18 ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE MONTHLY Edited at California Institute of Technology EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD: Hugh Colvin, '36, Chairman; Harry K. Farrar, '27: Ernst Maag, *26: George Langsner. '31; William Huse, Associate Professor of English. Editorial Consultant: George R. MacMinn, Professor of English EDITORIAL STAFF: Editor-in-Chief-Donald S. Clark, '29 Managing Editor-Charles M. Mortensen Assistant Editor-Fanny McDougall Associate and News Editor-Mabel D. Hagerman BUSINESS STAFF: Business Management— The Colling Publishing Company 124 West Fourth Street Los Angeles, California Circulation Manager Paul H. Hammond, '36 Page 1 EVER-INCREASING ACCEPTANCE! PROOF THAT MODULAR COORDINATION PAYS From all parts of the country come reports of more and more modular-planned projects of every de-scription... from small houses to huge public buildings. This convincing evidence of the growing acceptance of modular coordination by architects, engineers, building craftsmen, contractors and materials manufacturers is proof that it offers important savings in time, money and material. In masonry construction, the use of modular planning combined with dimensionally-coordinated materials reduces cutting and fitting, effecting overall savings as high as 25 per cent. Thus modular masonry adds economy of construction to masonry's traditional advantages of architectural beauty, longer life, and lower maintenance cost. Modular masonry is one of the most economical types of construction now available. "BUILD FOR ECONOMY WITH MODULAR MASONRY" NORTHERN CALIFORNIA MASONRY COMMITTEE LABONDFANURACTOR MANUFACTURER Page 2 ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE MONTHLY ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE Monthly Vol. IX, No. 1 January, 1946 Trends of Research in Physics By W. V. HOUSTON HYSICS is a very broad subject. It includes the Phasic knowledge and techniques of practically all branches of engineering and technology, and, in the minds of many people, includes the whole of these sub-jects. Nevertheless. the actively pursued lines of research in physics cover only a small part of this field and change from time to time. In a sense, this is because physicists share with other people the desire to be in style, the desire to be doing something that other people think is of importance and about which they can talk. another sense, however, this change of emphasis in research stems directly from the fact that progress is being made, that some subjects are becoming well under-stood, and that it is necessary to look in other directions for new worlds to conquer. HISTORICAL CHANGES It is interesting to note some of the historical changes during the past 100 years. At about the middle of the 19th century a great deal of attention was directed to thermodynamics. The law of the conservation of energy and the laws concerning entropy were formulated and checked experimentally by various outstanding physicists known to us. After this first rapid development in the field, there remained a great deal of detailed work, but most of the underlying developments came during a rather short time. At a slightly later period in the 19th century, possibly from about 1865 to the end of the century, a good deal of attention was directed to electromagnetic phenomena. It was during this period that Maxwell formulated his electromagnetic equations and that Hertz established experimentally the existence of electromagnetic radiation. Out of this has grown all of the tremendous electrical and communications industry, but it is not now a major field of research in physics. Activity along these lines at the present time is usually called engineering, and consists in the applications of Maxwell's equations to various specific situations. With the beginning of the 20th century, physicists began to turn their attention towards the atomic and electronic constitution of matter. There grew out of this the establishment of the existence of electrons and the measurement of their properties. During the first JANUARY 1946 15 years of the 20th century this was regarded as an important held for research in physics, but as it became applied to more and more practical uses it became a branch of engineering almost of its own, and during the last few years the term "electronics" has become familiar to almost every person. The discovery of X-rays and the discovery of radioactivity stimulated research in these directions at about the same time. X-rays have now become a tool in many branches of engineering and of medicine, but the X-rays rarely a direct object of about 1910, directed to the properties of the atoms, and using X-rays spectroscopic and electronic techniques, and every other available tool, scientists fell avidly on the analyzing and understanding the properties of the atoms. developed the quantum mechanics, but since about 1930 it has been felt that problems associated with the external structure of atoms are essentially solved. Out of this has grown again a great many engineering and industrial applications. particular, the study of spectroscopy, which was orig inally one of the more esoterie branches of physics, has become a standard means of quality control in many PRESENT FIELD At the present time, there are roughly two kinds of things that physicists attempt to do. On the one hand, there still remains a great deal to be done in understanding the way in which the atoms build up solid pieces of matter. The difficulty seems to be largely a matter of complication. It is believed that if one had the proper mathematical techniques, the properties of solid matter could be described accurately and quantitatively in terms of the properties of the individual atoms. Nevertheless, this has not been con- clusively demonstrated, and even if it were true, there still remains the problem of finding the proper techniques. In one sense, this study of the properties of matter is regarded by many physicists as uninteresting; it is a kind of mopping-up process after the major advances (Continued on Page 16) Page 3 PETROLEUM vs. PLUTONIUM* By CLARK GOODMAN INTRODUCTION Fig. I is only one of the various possible systematic arrangements of the elements that occur in nature. or have recently been produced. The elements are arranged atomic energy. President Truman's an- nouncement of the bombing of Hiroshima on August 6. 1945, the air was filled with radio reports. Virtually every newspaper and magazine in the country followed with feature articles on atomic power. These are con- tinuing and, in addition, we are being exposed to a in order of increasing atomic number. indicated by the figure immediately below the symbol of each element. Nuclear physicists think of the atomic number Z as the number of positively charged particles, called protons, contained in the core or nucleas of an atom of a given element. A second important number in the periodic table is the atomic weight. listed just above the chemical symbol. flood of over-enthusiastic extrapolation and speculation. It seems particularly timelv that an accurate evalua- tion he made of the present and future competition to petroleum of this new source of energy. The symbol A will be used for atomic weight. On this scale the lightest and simplest of elements, hydrogen, has an atomie weight of 1.0080. As Z = 1, hydrogen must contain only one proton in its nucleus. The single FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES electron that swirls about this nucleus has a weight of only about 0.0005 units. Thus hydrogen nuclei are the The study of atomic energy constitutes part of the charged particles. protons, that constitute building blocks general field of nuclear physics. The first step in the in all nuclei. and the relative weight of each understanding of atomic energy is a definition of the elementary particles before incorporation in such nuclei specialized words and symbols used. is 1.0075. ie. slightly greater than 1. *Abstract of paper presented at General Session of the American Petroleum Institute, Chicago, Illinois, November 15, 1945. 0 1.0087 1.0080 H neviron 4.003 He 2 4003 He 2 20.183 Ne 10 6.940 Li 3 22.997 Na 11 9.02 Be 4 24.32 M8 12 10.82 B 5 26.97 Al 13 VV 12.010 C 호 28.06 Si /4 14.008 N 7 30.98 15 16.000 8 32.06 S 16 VI. 19.00 F 9 35.457 CI 17 TEE 20183 Ne 10 39.944 18 ㆄ 묭 啰 | 39.944 39.096 40.08 45.10 習 47.90 5095: 52.01 54.93 55.85 58.94 58.69 63.57 65.38 6972 72.60 7491 78.96 79916 83.7 K 19 Ca 20 Sc Ti V Cr 21 22 23 24 Mn 25 Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr 83.7 Kr 36 13/.3 Xe 54 222 Rn 86 85.48 87.63 88.92 91.22 RO 92.91 95.95 017: 10291 1067 07881124 1376 870 1217612761 12592135 Sr Y Zr Cb 37 38 39 40 41 Mo RU Pd Ag Cd'In Sn So Te 42 132.91 137.36 138.9* 178.6 43 44 49 50 180.88 183.92 186.31|190.2 195.23 197.2 200.6 204.39 207.21 209.0 (2107 CS Ba Hf Ta Re Pt AU HE TI Pb Bi 55 80 81 82 83 226.05 (227) 232.12 Ra 87 89 90 No Pu 88 AC Th 23/ a 238.07 (239) (239) 94 2 140.13 140.92 144.27 Ce 58 Pr Nd 59 60 61 6 150.43 152.0 156.9 Sm EU Gd 62 63 64 10 二 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 65 162.46 64 94 1672 1694 173.04174.99 Rare Earth Dy: Ho Er YbLU Elements 66 67 6869.70! 71 Fig. I 1945 Page 4 ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE MONTHLY B A 10 NUCLEAR BINDING ENERGY PER PARTICLE IN MEV 9 8- 해 7- 6- Ba FASON ENERGY РЬ ENERGY OF f TERRESTRIAL RADIOACTIVITY SOLAR ENERGY 0-3OMIYOXM, The interlocking particles that bind the protons to-and prevent their flying apart by electrostatic tepulsion, are electrically neutral, and for this reaso are called neutrons. They have an atomic number zero and, relative to oxygen, a weight of 1.0087. All nuclei are considered to be made up of neutrons and protons only. However, for a given element, i.e., a given Z, the number of neutrons present may vary somewhat. variation, of course, results in different weights for the individual atoms of the element, even though they all have the same number of protons. The name "isotope" is given to such modifications of the same element. Even hydrogen is not simple. Common hydrogen, referred to above. has a single proton in its nucleus, but there is a rare form of hydrogen that has both a proton and a neutron in its nucleus. For obvious reasons, this is called neavy hydrogen (or deuterium). and water containing an unusually high proportion of this hydrogen is called heavy water. As we shall have occasion to note later. uranium consists of three isotopes, a common form with 92 protons and 146 neutrons known as a rare variety with 92 protons and 143 neutrons known as and a very rare form with 92 protous and 142 neutrons known alternately as or Ull. Naturally: with so many different isotopes present in various abundances, the average weight of a given element would not be expected to be a simple multiple of the weights of the constituent particles, the proton and the neutron. However, there is an additional explanation for the observed values of the atomic weights. The weight of an aggregation of neutrons and protons is JANUARY 1946 120 140 160 1 180 200 220 ATOMIC WEIGHT IN ATOMIC MASS UNITS Fig. 2 always less than the sum of the weights of the separate particles. for example. the weight of two protons anc two neutrons is 2 X 1.0075 - 2 X 1.0087 = 4.0324 whereas the weight of helium (less two electrons) is seen from Fig. 1 to be 1.0029. This decrease of about 0.03 weight units takes place when the four constitutent par ticles coalesce to form the helium nucleus. reaction that expresses this fact can be written symboli. 2, 4-0015+2101-0087 → 2104-0029 + 0.03 atomlo-moight unst (1) Iwo fundamental axioms in physics require that the sum of the subscripts (charges) on the left must equal the sum on the right, and the sum of the weights on the left must equal the sum on the right. The coefficients in front of the symbols must, of course, be included in these considerations. In the foregoing equation, "0.03 atomic-weight unit" must appear on the right to balance the weight on the left. THE SOURCES OF ATOMIC ENERGY Einstein postulated, and ample experimental evidence has since proved, that weight (or, more exactly, mass) and energy are equivalent and related by the simple expression: Energy = constant X mass (2) The proportionality constant in this relationship is so large that the production of a pound of helium from hydrogen † neutrons would liberate 29 X 1010 B.t.u. of heat energy. Alternately il would require the expenditure of this prodigious amount of energy to break one pound of helium into hydrogen and neutrons; i.e., the helium nuclei are bound together with this amount of energy. The formation of helium from elementary particles Page 5 Thermal Diffusion Method Gaseous Diffusion 2 Through Barriers High pressure, Outside tube is cold Inside tube is hot 3 Centrifugal 4 Electro-Magnetic Low pressure Porous barrier Magnet poles Stream of charged uranium particles Fluid uronium circulates, tends to concentrate lighter U235 at top. Lighter U235 gas When mixture of gasified U235 more readily through barrier. and U238 is spun rapidly, lighter U235 tends toward center Fig. 3 Splitter In strong field of giant magnet lighter U235 particles are deflected more than U238. Half way round, splitter separates two streams. symbolized above does not take place on the earth, because it requires very high temperatures. However. this reaction is believed to account for the tremendous thermal productivity of the sun, and takes place in six steps involving carbon and nitrogen as nuclear catalysts. A graphical representation of the relative binding energies of all known nuclei is given in Fig. 2. The binding energy per nuclear particle B/A is plotted against the atomic weight A for all known nuclei from hydrogen, A = 1, to heavy nuclei of A = 240. As we have already seen, the binding energy of helium nuclei is much greater than that of hydrogen nuclei and neutrons sepa-rately. Hence the B/A for helium lies well above that of hydrogen. The significance of the curve now becomes evident. Transformations which result in changes from a lower portion of the curve to an upper portion are exothermic, and vice versa. However, there is one important difference between the changes at low values of A as compared to those at high values. Certain heavy nuclei can be made to split into two or more fragments of medium atomic weight A at ordinary temperatures (0-200° C.). This process is known as nuclear fission, and the energy released by such a change has been designated as the fission energy in Fig. 2. Pound for pound, or on the basis of the number of nuclear particles involved. the fission of heavy nuclei generates about one-seventh as much energy as the formation of helium from hydrogen in the sun. It is small wonder that this process constitutes a potent source of energy. Apparently, there is a minimal change in binding below which fission does not occur. Although nearly all of the heavy elements have been tested, fission apparently is appreciable only in those elements above about 210 in atomic weight. Of these elements, only uranium and thorium occur in appreciable quantities in terrestrial materials. Their presence indicates that uranium and thorium must be relatively stable, otherwise they would have long since disappeared during the two to four billion years since this planet was formed. Uranium and thorium are not completely stable, but undergo spontaneous transformations that result in ele- Page 6 ments of lower atomic weights. Radioactivity is the term used to describe these changes. In Fig. 2 the small shift from A = 238 to A = 206 for the uranium series, and from A = 232 to A = 208 for the thorium series, releases sufficient energy to account for all the internal. heat flux of the earth. The emission of an alpha ray (2He*) by radioactive decay is similar to nuclear fission in that both processes result in the splitting of a nucleus into two parts, forming two new nuclei. However, these related phenomena differ in a number of important respects. NUCLEAR FISSION In the first place. radioactive decay is spontaneous, and not susceptible to any control. On the other hand, to produce fissions it is necessary to strike the nucleus with a particle or with radiation. There are a number of such nuclear detonators, but neutrons are by far the most effective. The absence of electric charge (2 = 0) these particles to penetrate easily; whereas protons, deuterons, and alphas-being positively charged mare strongly repelled by the large electrostatic fields of heavy nuclei. The probability of a neutron-producing fission in a uranium or thorium nucleus is dependent upon a number of factors. not the least in importance being the velocity of the neutron. In fact. the less abundant isotope? 020935 s very intrequently split by other than relatively siowly moving neutrons, the probability of fission being in versely proportional to the velocity of the neutrons. On the other hand. thorium nuclei {ooth?32 only) and ge1238 nuclei undergo fission under neutron bombardment only when the neutrons have high energies, called "fast neu-trons." With slow and intermediate-velocity neutrons the following transformations orcur: (3) 210, 0nt (510m and intermediate) → 921239 + 8 • (4) ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE MONTHLY The product nuclei do nol undergo fission, but are less stable that the original nuclei, being beta-radioactive with half-lives of 26 minutes and 23 minutes, repectively. The action of fast neutrons on 90Th232 and g2u238 and of slow neutrons on clei contain too many neutrons to be stable, several beta-disintegrations and possibly a neutron-decay are 92035， results in fission into two slightly unequal nuclei. The process is highly exothermic and considerably more complex than any of the foregoing reactions. One possible sequence for PROPERTIES OF PLUTONIUM In the preceding section it was mentioned that slow nd intermediate velocity neutrons or 920238 produce a beta-radioactive isotope, 920235 will serve to illustrate the nature of the changes involved: se 235 + un' (520m) g21236 → 5686 +36kr + Zgn° + HEAT (5) This reaction occurs almost instantaneously and hence is explosive in character. The fission products, 56 Ba and 36K5, fly apart with tremendous velocities. Because these nu-iranium is composed of 0.7 per cent 920-35 he decay of this substance results in the formation of ew element of atomic number 93, called neptuniu 19318239) leptunium, in turn, emits another beta particle, becon g plutonium and 99.3 per cent 920230 {0,P4339). which emits an alpha particle, thus decaying to 929235 but so slowly that in effect it is a stable element. Plutonium is fissionable with slow neutrons, and hence Minerals: Pitchblende Carnatite Concentration, Separation and Purification of URANIUM Ore Uz08 ▶ Metallurgical Treatment-Chemicals, Heat and Know-How PURE URANIUM - METAL U238-99.3% u235-0.7% Casting and Aluminum-Coating of URANIUM Radioactive Gases Heated Water, plus. Radioactivity, out SHIELD Gammả Ràys, PURE GRAPHITE Neutrons Canned URANIUM Rod of BORON or CADMIUMS 0 URANIUM-GRAPHITE Chain Reacting Pile (Remote Côntrol) = URANIUM Cylinders In "GRAPHITE Lattice Cooling-Water, In '？ is:wEio. URANIUM and PLUTONIUM Purification of -PLUTONIUM Separation of PLUTONIUM from URANIUM Deactivation and Removal of Fission Products Fig, 4 JANUARY 1946 Page 7 is equivalent to 1235 in this regard. However. plutonium is sufficiently differ. ent from its progenitor. 0238 that it can be separated from uranium by chemical methods. The importance of this fact is made clear in a subsequent section. SOURCES OF NEUTRONS Thus far nothing has been said concerning the sources These uncharged nuclear duced either by fissions or hy the collision of nuclei high velocities. There is a small neutron component in cosmic radiation, but much greater intensities are produced by bombarding certain light elements (for exam-ple, beryllium) with alpha particles: deuterons, or pro-tons. Radon or radium mixed with beryllium provides a compact source of neutrons. It was by means of neutrons from such sources that fission was initially produced and studied. Deuterons or protons accelerated to a high velocity in a cyclotron can produce even more intense sources of neutrons. However, enormously greater intensities are required to release significant amounts of atomic energy. As indicated in Equation (5), neutrons are released fission process itself. Under proper conditions, secondary neutrons produce further fissions which release more neutrons to produce still more fissions. and so on. If the number of these self-induced fissions exceeds even by a minute amount the number produced by the initial neutrons, this avalanche-like reaction results. The propagation of the reaction is extraordinarily rapid For this reason, unless carefully controlled, such actions are violently explosive. The critical condition under which a self-sustained chain reaction occurs constitutes the crux of atomic energy as known today. CRITICAL SIZE In the official U. S. government publication, the now famous Smyth report.* this condition is summarized as follows: "The question of whether a chain reaction does or does not go depends on the result of a competition among four processes: "(1) Escape of neutrons. "(2) Non-fission capture of neutrons. "(3) Non-fission capture by impurities. "(4) Fission capture. If the loss of neutrons by the first three processes is less than the surplus produced hy the fourth. the chain reaction occurs; otherwise, it does not." wo methods can be used to limit the escape of neu The first is to enlarge the amount of activ material to the point where the bulk of the neutrons produced is captured within the mass of the fissionable material itself. This procedure establishes a critical size "The heaviest stable isotopes of these tin flements are 58 Ra138 and 36 Kr86. "Neptunium (half-life 2.3 days) years) do not occur in nature in any appreciable quantity. uranium in the periodic table (Fig. 1) and hence have been named for the planets Neptune and Pluto, which lie beond the planet Uranus. Page 8 above which the chain reaction takes place! The second method of decreasing the loss of neutrons by escape is the use of a reflector surrounding the material. Heavy elements serve as reflectors of fast neutrons relatively light neutron hounces off a heavy nucleus with very little change in speed. If reflection with a substantial decrease in velocity is desired. light-weight elements, called "moderators." The loss of neutrons by non-fission capture is equally important in determining the critical size. Certain ele-ments, such as boron and cadmium, are very accessible to neutrons and behave like neutron sponges, because they so readily "soak up" neutrons. Most elements pos. sess this characteristic to a considerably smaller degave For example, nitrogen, iron, nickel. and vanadium cross-sections: magnesium, carbon. aluminum, zine. tin, bismuth, and lead have very small capture cross-sections for neutrons. In establishing the critical size for the chain reaction, it is necessary that even minute traces of cadmium and horon be eliminated and that only traces of the medium cross-section elements be present. All essential structu- materials must contain only elements with small capture cross-sections. Because uranium and thorium ores are inevitably associated with elements of large or medium cross- section, a self-sustained reaction is impossible, regardless of the size of the ore deposit. In addition, hecause of the large proportion of 1238 in ordinary uranium, the non-fission canture of neutrons 1238 predominates over the fission capture by 1238 and u235, even in a very large mass of this material. Hence, not are uranium ores stable to fission, but even pure uranium metal does not undergo spontaneous fission bulk. An important exception to this conclusion is discussed in the following section. PRODUCTION OF FISSIONABLE MATERIALS In the foregoing, thorium has been included with uranium as a source material. Because of the susceptibility of ,235 to slow neutrons and the possibility of producing plutonium from 0238 the major effort of the Manhattan project centered o1 the direct or indirect use of uranium. No information of atomic energy. Publication from Prince en Are PulPrae Printoried as of August, 1945. Arailable The icincal sires el ario e maeriale are military secteis. Prior to the 1235 six inches in diameter might be sufficient to sustain a chain reaction. This amount of 735 ould weigh about 100 pounds. The Smyth report implies that somewh ss than too kilograms is necessar ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE MONTHLY A large part of the efforts of the project was devoted to the difficult task of separating the isotopes of uranium. 1238 and v235 are essentially identical in chemical properties; hence, they are separable only by processes depending on the small (1.3 per cent) difference in atomic weight. Four large-scale physical methods have been used to produce for atomic bombs (see fig. 3). Several other methods offer promise, not progressed beyond the laboratory stage. While these developments in the separation of uranium isotopes were taking place, another compartment of the Manhattan project was sludying methods of producing plutonium. A most ingenious process was evolved which not only yields large amounts of this fissionable material. but appears as the most likely industrial source of atomic energy. It is in the production and utilization of plutonium that petroleum may find an atomic competitor. The major steps involved in the production of plutonium are shown schematically in Fig. 4. The crude source material is pitchblende, carnotite, or some other After mining and milling, the ore is concentrated and treated chemically to obtain the pure oxide, U,s. The next step requires the preparation of essentially spectroscopically pure uranium metal. This ery exacting metallurgical work requires considerable now-how, as do all of the other specialized techniques which have been so expeditiously developed under the Manhattan project. The metal, of course, contains the same proportion of isotopes as the original ore: viz., 99.3 per cent and 0.7 per cent u235. It is cast into bars, and is coated with a thin impervious layer of very pure aluminum to protect the uranium from direct contact with the cooling water. This "canned" uranium is then placed in a lattice structure made of highly purified graphite. The size of this so-called pile is very precisely determined. It contains just slightly the critical amount required io maintain a chain reaction. A simplified explanation of the operation of the pile is as follows: When the pile has been assembled to the proper size, it is triggered by stray neutrons from cosmic radiation. These produce a few fissions of either 235 or 238 depending on whether these initiating neutrons are slow or fast. The secondary neutrons resulting from the fissions are fast and, hence, cannot produce additional fissions in although they may cause fissions in 1238. The most probable result, however, is that these secondary neutrons will be slowed down by collisions to intermediate velocities before producing such fissions. Because of the predominance of 238 most of these neutrons are captured to form .239 However, by having pure carbon in the form of JANUARY 1946 graphite alternating with the uranium, many of the secondary neutrons are slowed down to thermal veloci-ties. Because the capture of neutrons by 0735 increases inversely with the velocity of the neutrons, the probability of producing fissions in 1235 is greatly increased by the use of the graphite modera-tor. In this way a self-sustained chain reaction produced. Of course, a large amount of cooling must be provided in order to limit the rise in temperature. Special pipes, made of elements with small capture cross-sections, provide channels for the cooling water. The magnitude of this cooling problem can be appreciated from the fact that an appreciable rise in temperature of the Columbia River takes place when one of the piles is operating at the Hanford plant in Washington. production of a pound of plutonium per day releases energy in the form of heat at the rate of about 1,000,000 The pile and its products are intensely radioactive and hence extremely dangerous to personnel. For this reason the operation of the pile and chemical treatment of the ranium, after removal from the pile, must be carrie on by remote control within air-tight shields several fee in thickness. Following removal of the fission products, the relatively small amount of plutonium is separated from the bulk of the parent uranium, after which the plutonium is purified. This material is then ready for incorporation in an atomic bomb. UTILIZATION OF ATOMIC ENERGY The purpose of the present discussion is to consider the possible eflects of atomic energy on the petroleum industry, not on military strategy. The fission reaction releases about 32 billion B.t.u. per pound of 1735 or plutonium, and the radioactive decay of the fission products releases an additional eight billion B.t.u. This energy is more than a million times the heat of com. bustion of a good grade of coal (14,000 B.t.u. per pound) or of 100-octane gasoline (22,000 B.t.u. per pound). Yet the enormous amount of heat produced in the present piles is wasted. By means of heat exchangers, it probably would be relatively simple to use some of this energy for household or other low-temperature heating. In order to utilize such heat for industrial purposes, it would be necessary to operate the pile at temperatures comparable to those of modern steam power plants. Apparently, the problems involved in this transition are very large. However, if developments in this field are allowed to flourish unhampered by military restrictions and government controls. it seems probable that these problems can be solved in a reasonably short time, and that atomic energy will be available for industrial the next decade. Vahe question will then ber Oes atomic power compete with petroleum, coal, and water power economic basis? Too many unknowns are in- volved to allow other than speculation, but in all likelihood the answer will not be clearcut. Inasmuch as coal is generally used as fuel for large installations, it would appear that natural uranium piles Page 9 may compete with coal. particularly in the generation of electric power. The piles could be located near the populated areas. but sufficiently remote to prevent radiation hazards. The heat released would be used to produce steam to drive turbo-electric generators. This electric power would actually be a by-product from the production of plutonium and radioactive fission materials and the treatment of substances by radiation. Some of the heat from these large piles also might be used to operate thermal or diffusion plants for separating 0735 from uranium. The natural uranium and graphite piles, which may compete with coal, are far too bulky to be used in units for mobile power. By using uranium that has been enriched in 135 or to which plutonium has been added. the size of the pile can be considerably reduced. The use of heavy water (deuterium oxide) as a moderator in place of graphite also allows substantial reduction in size. ahead would be achieved by pulling out the cadmium "throttle." A distinct advantage for naval vessels would be that "refueling" would he infrequent. An additional consideration would be that the atomic fuel is nonin-fammable. Shielding would be a major problem, and would add considerably to the weight and size of the Such applications of atomic energy might be entirely ruled out on this basis alone. 1735 and plutonium in excess of the critical sizes can be assembled-provided cadmium, boron, or some other neutron absorber is preesnt in sufficient amount to prevent the chain reaction. If the absorber were gradually removed until the critical point is reached, a controlled release of energy from a very compact source might be possible. However. with or plutonium, this procedure would be extremely sensi-tive-a slight movement of the absorber might result in a violent explosion. For this reason, compact units will probahly use a mixture of 0235 and v23B containing not more than about 20 per cent of the lighter isotope and some moderator in order to obtain a safe degree of controllability. Even more problems than arise with the larger units must be solved before diminutive atomic engines will he possible. For military purposes such engines might supply for guided missiles or robot planes. order to compete seriously with diesel oil must be adaptable to auto- mobiles. For these purposes the shielding problem would be most acute. The compactness gained in using atomic fuel might be more than offset by the large amount of shielding required. Of course, all of these considerations have been limited to the source of atomic energy now known; i.e., to nuclear fission of heavy ele-ments. It will be recalled that the consolidation of light elements into medium-weight elements releases compara. Page 10 ble amounts of energy. Although such nuclear syntheses have never heen accomplished large scale, they have been achieved in minute amounts in the laboratory. If future research extends the range of available atomic energy to include the light elements. many of the foregoing limitations may be removed. In addition, these light elements would probably be far more plentiful than the relatively scarce fissionable elements, uranium and thorium. Within the bounds of available information, it would appear that petroleum and coal will probably continue for at least another generation as the primary sources of energy for transportation and heating. Water power and coal will probably generate most of the electricity during the next fifty years. Although atomic energy may gradually enter as a competitor, its most extensive applications will probably be in new fields of human Industrial processes at extremely high tem-ultra-high-speed transportation, the produc tion of radioactive materials for industrial and medical as well as for some scientific investigations, the manufacture of rare elements by transmutation, and the treatment of materials by radiation, are among the more likely specialized uses of fission energy in addition to the continued production of atomic explosives. For some time the more conservative members of the petroleum industry have been concerned about what the world would use for fuel when the petroleum and coal reserves were exhausted. Prior to 1935 new discoveries more than offset the increased consumption of petroleum. During the past 10 years the discovery rate has rapidly declined while production has soared. Although there will be a postwar respite, this trend is likely to continue for some time. However, the petroleum industry now has somewhat less occasion to regret the expenditure of a large part of the earth's supply of chemical energy. By the time this source is exhausted there should be plenty of atomic energy available. Although this change seems inevitable, it will certainly not be rapid. Few of us will live to drive atomic automobiles or fly jet planes powered by nuclear energy. When this time arrives. there will still be a petroleum industry, but it may have changed rather remarkably in Instead of petroleum being primarily used for fuel. it will be the raw material for all kinds of organic substances. The refinery of the future will be more of a chemical factory than a producer of fuel. To Establish Firm in Brazil FOLLOWING his resignation as vice-president and director of Northrop Aircraft, Inc., Theodore C. Coleman of the class of 1926. left with his family in November for Brazil. where he will establish his own company to be devoted to distribution and maintenance of aircraft and other U. S.-manufactured products in South America. A resident of Pasadena since 1922. when he entered Caltech, Mr. Coleman has been prominent in business and civic affairs in southern California for 20 years. Prior to his joining the Northrop Company shortly after its formation, he was vice-president and partner of the old southern California banking firm of Banks, Huntley Mr. Coleman spent two months last summer in South America on a business trip. and heard news of V.J Day by shortwave while in the interior of Brazil. He will live in Sao Paulo with Mrs. Coleman and their two children. ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE MONTHLY OPERATING CONTROL TECHNIQUES By S. E. SOHLER HE meaning of operating controls in the aircraft industry is best expressed by their three t basic principles: 1. The operating plan of action must consider all limiting factors and be possible of attainment as a total program as well as for individual projects. 2. The operating plans, including policy instructions where applicable, must be transmitted to concerned dersonnel throughout the organization in adequate 3. Progress information must be available with suff-cient speed, coverage, and competent evaluation to provide a basis for intelligent action at all levels of supervision. The true test of manufacturing management's ability is the devising and revising of operating control tech. niques to meet changing conditions effectively and eliciently. Because of space limitations, no attempt will be made in this article to cover the many phases of operating controls involved in a major aircraft plant. However. two typical control problems encountered at the California Division of North American Aviation, Inc., during the war will be described, along with the operating control techniques which were developed at that time and which have been used to advantage on similar problems The philosophy behind the development of these tech- is expressed by the following occupies a prominent place in the office of one of the foremost aircraft executives: "It may not always be the best policy to adopt the course that is the best technically. but those responsible for policy can never form right judgment without knowledge of what is right technically." This type of approach is especially cogent in the aircraft industry, where the complex problems involved, combined with the so-called "human element" many people concerned, make complete dependence on theory and statistics impractical, and make operations without them almost an impossibility. TOOLING A. Problem The problem of tool loading was a chronic headache even during the pre-war period, when contracts were small and comparatively little tooling was justified. Whenever the tool shops appeared to be overloaded, the problem was usually overcome during a comparatively short period by working overtime and Saturdays, or even hiring a few additional tool-makers temporarily However, wartime conditions made some form of control necessary for several reasons: 1. Contracts were much larger and, therefore, much more elaborate tooling was justified. Most of this elaborate tooling had to be completed for the first ship, unless there was adopted the very expensive alternative of building temporary tooling for the first ship and replacing with permanent tooling 2. As tooling departments were already working 50 to 60 hours per week and tool-makers were very scarce, any overload condition could not be appreciably alleviated by additional overtime or additional hiring. 3. Many more production workers were dependent upon the tools to be made than ever before, espe-sally because of the inexperience of productio lepartment labor available. In view of the labo shortage, idleness of productive labor resulting from lack of tooling could not be tolerated. An analysis of past experience showed that the tooling shortages usually become critical during the last 30 to 60 days prior to completion of the hrst ship. The reason for this became apparent when the total of tooling hours required for the basic tooling on the hrst ship was plotted against a time scale, with the distribution of these hours based on the assumption that all tools were 30,000 40,000 г 30,000 AT RIGHT: FIG. Tooling load chart. :20,000 10,000 -—— --- January Februory March April May Nuna July August JANUARY 1946 September Page 11 Total Adjust Number Name 85185088 0 0 3 10 2325 0205 0 0 05 90t00b09D9 457530% 0 0 WEEKLY TOOLING COMPARISON SCHEDULE Contract North American Aviation, Inc. Note: Heading on vertical column denotes due date of tool. to be constructed just in time to meet the true required completion date of the tool as needed to support the "in-work" date of the part or assembly involved. (See Fig. 1, Curve 1.) Curve 2 in the illustration indicates the total anticipated tooling capacity over the period considered. Curve 3 indicates the portion of that capacity already allocated to other projects. In actual practice these two lines would normally vary during such a period, but they have been shown as fixed values for the purpose of simplifying this example. Point A indicates the date on which suficient engineering information was available to enable tooling hours to be started. Point B indicates the tentative date set for completion of the airplane, and Point C indicates the date by which the basic tooling for the airplanes had to be completed in order to support that completion date. From this graph it was immediately apparent that tooling shortages during the 30 to 60 days prior to airplane completion were inevitable it all tools were started lust in time to meet the completion date, as there just wasn't enough capacity available during that period to expend the hours required. The control problem then became levising a means of insuring that enough tooling hours vere expended early in the project to complete all basic tooling by the required time. increasing and decreasing of the capacity to conform to the load represented by Curve I, was impossible under conditions of wartime labor shortage. The first step was to redistribute the total basic toolin: hours required over the period between Point C in such a way that the load would not exceed the available net capacity. (See Fig. 1, Curve 4.) required that the expenditure of tonling hours reach a maximum by the date indicated by Point D, and a check was made of the engineering release schedule to determine whether or not sufficient engineering information would be available for the tooling departments to If not, the completion date of the airplane was set back. or the tooling policy was revised to call for less permanent tooling for the first ship. This investigation and planning satisfied the principle of making sure that the total plan of action (including all other commitments), as well as the plan for the specific project, was physically possible. Satisfaction of the second principle of operating controls (transmission of the plan) presented additional problems of technique. Two possibilities were available: 1. Rescheduling of suficient tools from their true due dates to earlier due dates, such that the distribution of the hours load per schedule corresponded to 2. Leaving the true due date on each tool, and through some other device insuring that the tool departments expended hours on this project in accordance with Curve 4. The first possibility had several inherent disad- (a) Giving specific tools due dates appreciably earlier than their true dates tended to lessen the shop's confidence in the dependability of schedule dates, especially if tooling supervision were on occasion chastised for missing due dates on rescheduled tools which it coul individually prove weren't really needed for six or eight weeks. (b) There was a possibility that the engineering department would not meet its own release dates on those specific parts for which specific tools had been rescheduled earlier. Therefore, it was decided that the due date to be used on individual tools would in every case be the true due date as actually required by the master schedule for the first ship. In this way, confidence of the individual tool-maker in the schedule was not impaired, and a behind-schedule tool obtained reasons that were provably val priority treatment for • The plan of action for the project, when issued to tooling supervision, included a curve similar to Curve 4, along with an ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE MONTHLY explanation of the need for the expenditure of hours in accordance with that curve. This device unnecessary the risk of our-guessing tooling departments merely expended hours on whatever information was available early, so long as the total expenditure conformed to Curve 1. In addition to the due date on the tool order it was found advisable to prepare a so-called parison schedule (rig. 2) which kept a summary of current tool orders be due date in front of all levels of supervision, along with the estimated hours required for the construction of the tool, and the actual cumulative hours expended on each tool to date. This type of schedule was for the purpose of satisfying the first and second principles at the same time, with a minimum of The third principle of operating controls was also satisfied in this case by a weekly comparison between Curve 4 and the actual weekly hours' expenditure during the early phases of the project, along with an analysis of the reasons for any deviation. This was subsequently supported by the weekly comparison schedule noted above, during the latter phases of the project, when individual tools became due. PLANT CONVERSION Early in 1944 the Army indicated a desire for increased quantities of P-5l's, which were currently in production at the California Division at 10 per day. However, in view of the manpower shortage it was agreed that an increase could be accomplished only by discon. tinuing the production of B-25's, which were currently running at five per day, but which were also being produced in appreciable quantities at North American's Kansas City plant. Thus, it became management's problem to plan and execute an orderly and efficient conversion of the California Division plant from B-25's plus P-5l's to full P-5l production, starting with the following basic factors: 1. A total of approximately 10,000 direct workers was employed, with 6,000 working on the P.51 and 4,000 on the B-25. 2. Employees were quitting at the rate of 200 to 300 ver month and new hires were not quite able to seep pace with this turnover rate. 3. The B-25 project occupied the larger of the two final assembly high-bay areas, and the P-51 had to be moved into this area before production rates could be appreciably increased. Also, supporting P-51 major assembly departments had to be relo. cated or expanded, or both, to provide the addi. tional capacity necessary. 4. Duplicate tooling would be required on most major assembly jigs and on some subassembly This problem included the determination jig which assemblies would need any duplicates. how many would be needed. and when they would be required, as as the finding of tooling capacity to construct them. A preliminary survey indicated that it would take approximately three weeks to convert the B-25 area to accommodate the P-51 project. In other words, for a three weeks' period hundreds of employees working on the B-25 would be available, but the P-51 production rate could not sufficiently increase in its existing area to use all the capacity thereby made available. Any attempt to lay off these employees for this period and JANUARY 1948 subsequently rehire them was out of the question, in view of the already high turnover rate and the dificulty of obtaining new employees. . On the other hand, merely allowing these employees to stand around during that period would he very bad on morale, to say nothing of the wasted effort involved. B. Solution The satisfaction of the first principle of operating controls required considerable investigation and analysis because of the many factors involved. The first step was to reexamine the conversion plans, which, in the preliminary survey, were estimated to require three weeks in the critical final assembly departments. By specifying the maximum prefabrication of conveyor line structure and equipment, and by planning that the actual construction work in the B-25 area take place station by station immediately following the last airplane as it went down the line, the planned final assembly conversion time was cut to 10 days. An analysis of the operations in the P-5l final assembly area was made, showing that by "supercharg. ing" or over-manning each station with some of the personnel released from the B-25 final assembly,: temporary production rate of 14 per day could br obtained while the P-51 project was still located in its original area. Also, production rates above 14 per day were planned for the P-51 as soon as possible after the scheduled relocation into the larger area. On the basis of the production schedules arrived at in the manner described above, a total direct labor load was computed for the period involved in the conversion. (Fig. 3, solid lines). This total labor load for the factory assumed distribution of hours' expenditure prior to airplane completion; i.e., it assumed that hours would be expended on parts and assemblies as actually required by the next assembly or by the final line and with normal minimum storage time allowed. In anticipation that some net loss of personnel would be inevitable as a result of this conversion, the maximum P-51 scheduled rates were set at a level which would not require a peak in excess of 9,500 direct employees, the most optimistic figure possible under the circumstances, as normal turnover rates would easily bring about this reduction during the two months that no new hires The gradual decrease of employee requirements beyond the peak of 9.500 was a recoonition of the hours per unit improvement that would be experienced after the maximum production rate (20 per day) had been attained. It was immediately apparent from this graph that some additional action would be required to avoid the necessity of a layoff or a period of mass idleness. A reexamination of employee turnover experience indi cated that termination rates appreciably higher than average could be expected during the conversion to full P-51 production, as the reorganization of departments and the regrouping of personnel were certain to result in many dissatisfied employees who were merely waiting an excuse to quit. Therefore, it was decided that plans were to be based on the assumption that approximately 1,000 direct workers would be lost as a result of the The tentative final assembly completion schedules mentioned above. which had been based on the physical limitations of the areas involved, were left intact, and it was assumed that the volume of work represented by Area A, Fig. 3, could be rescheduled to take Pago 13 Adjusted Total 10,000 Total A__ 8,000 6,000 P-51 Direct Employe 4,000 B-25 2,000 AT LEFT: FIG. 3 P-51 and B-25 labor loads for conversion period April May June July place earlier, as indicated by Area B. The following plans were devised to carry out such a program: 1. The problem was comparatively simple in those detail and functional subassembly departments which had been fabricating both B-25 and P-51 parts. It merely required that sufficient additional P-5I parts be scheduled into those departments immediately behind the end of the B-25 contract, such that the full capacity of the departments would be used. This meant that an appreciable number of P.51 detail and subassemblies would be fabricated prior to actual need, and arrange- ments were made to provide storage area for these. The schedule was so adjusted that this excess of parts was gradually absorbed during the four to five months after the conversion, by which time all schedules were faired back into line on normal minimum storage basis. 2. The plans temporarily to "supercharge" the P-51 assembly lines prior to moving were re- checked and left as described above. 3. In the major assembly departments supplying final assembly, a similar temporary "supercharg-ing was planned. However, in some maior assem. bly departments, such as those building wings, flaps; control surfaces. etc., it was planned that inefficient "supercharging" would be avoided as much as possible by specifying that the production of spares be temporarily stopped and the 14 per day rate required to support final assembly obtained by temporarily diverting that spare capacity to production parts. It was intended that the behind-concurrency status of spares production resulting from the action described above would he compensated for at a later date by increasing Page 14 August September the production rate to a maximum in those departments prior to the time final assembly schedule production rate had reached maximum. This con- centration on major assemblies for final assembly actually had to start several weeks prior to the time the final assembly rate went above 10 per day. in order that additional assemblies would be on hand by the date the stationized conveyor lines were moved. This additional supply of major assemblies had to be available to fill the increased number of stations in the new conveyor line lay-outs. Only by filling these stations immediately after the move, could the excess final assembly personnel be kept busy at the earliest possible moment and the production rates increased quickly thereafter to use up the backlog of stored details and subassemblies. The plans described above were laid out for each department and a load chart similar to Fig. 3 prepared for each. When totaled, these charts closely corresponded to the desired total load as expressed in Fig. 3, and the plan of action for production departments was approved by management. 1. After all departmental production schedules had been established in the manner descrihed above. the current hours-per-unit reports were consulted to determine those jigs on which one or more duplicates would be required to support 20 per day plus spares, and a chart plotted for each. indicating future production rates, including spares. (See Fig. 4). On each of these charts there were plotted the dates on which each duplicate would be required to meet the increased rates, using current unit hours as a basis for this decision. (Fig. 4. A.) In the case of major jigs ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE MONTHLY involving a considerable expenditure of man hours, a careful check of the hours per unit expended on that item during the last several months was made, and if appreciable additional improvement on hours per unit could be anticipated, such consideration was used in deciding whether or not all of the duplicate jigs would actually be neces-sary. In a surprisingly large number of cases it found that some of the additional tooling required on the basis of current hours per unit would not actually be required by the time maximum production rates were scheduled, because of the justifiably expected improvement in hours performance which would be obtained by that time. (Fig. 4, B). Individual duplicate tooling requirements determined in the manner de- then extended into a total man hours load, and this in turn added to the snown loads on other projects in the tooling departments. In this particular case, no adjustec hours load curve had to be used, but, if necessary. the control device described in the first section of this article could have been used. The second principle of operating controls was satisfied as follows: 1. In accordance with normal practice, all detail part work orders had been given in-work and completion schedule day numbers prior to issuance to the shop. The temporary acceleration of P.51 detail fabrication schedules then merely required the adjustment of the conversion chart between schedule day numbers and calendar dates. This revised chart was issued to all stockrooms and control stations handling detail work orders. 2. As all assemblies were already scheduled individually on a weekly comparison schedule form, of the same general type as the tooling comparison form described in the previous section, the specific plans for each assembly department were quickly accurately expressed 3. Departmental rearrangement plans were plotted on a master chart by industrial engineering, all the timing was checked for proper coordination, and specific detail move notices were issued to cover each area involved. The third principle of operating controls was satisfied principally by the existing progress reporting mediums, such as work order status in detail departments and weekly progress reports in the assembly departments on the comparison schedule form mentioned above. Tooling progress was followed on the tooling com-described above. follow-up on the conversion work was instituted and closely watched. As a result of the operating controls described above, the last B-25 was completed on schedule to the minute. On a Saturday and Sunday, nine days after the last B-25 had been completed, the P-51 final assembly department was moved to the converted B-25 area. Monday, 14 P-Sl's were completed off the new line, and this rate was increased to 16 per day one week later, as planned. As a result of the manpower controls used during this period, the unit cost of the P.51 rose only two per cent, and that for a period of only two weeks, after which the previous improvement trend con-tinued. The conscientious adherence to the principles of operating controls had paid off a thousandfold in relation to the development and maintenance expense of an organization to provide those controls. Wins Legion of Merit geology at the Colorado School of Mines, and now United States Director of Industrial Production in Europe, recently was awarded the Legion of Merit for success in initiating and developing materials control and the procurement of metals and minerals for the Armed Services. Colonel Boyd was a staff assistant to the director of materiel in the headquarters of the Army Service Forces between March, 1942, and April, 1945, during which he "was responsible in large part for the successful operation of the entire system of allocation by the War Production Board of critical raw materials in such manner as to assure a naximum war effort." AT RIGHT: FIG. 4 Typical duplicate tooling survey sheet showing effect of employed hours per 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 : 12 Production Reguired Aruming current Hrea A Duplicato Toding - B. Duplicole Tooling Required Assuming Currant His/Unit 5 Jigs Required 7-1 7-8 7-15 7-22 7-29 8-5 8-12 B-19 8-26 9-3 9-10 JANUARY 1946 9-24 10-1 10-8 10-15 10-22 10-30 Page 15 C.I.T. NEWS December Meeting THe December Cumna Dinner eeting, he were the University Club. was a great success. There were 70 members and guests present: the class of 33 being represented by six members not had! After a session of elbow bending and the partaking of a most delicious dinner. the meeting was formally opened by President Charles Varney. Vice-President and Program Chairman Al Laws introduced the speaker of the evening. R. G. Kenyon, vice-president of the Southern California Edison Mr. Kenyon gave interesting talk on Labor-He differentiated between labor as a commodity. and the laborer as an individual. Labor as a commodity is priced in accordance with standard economic laws of supply and demand and not according to the buyer's ability to pay. This classification fits ver! accurately into the picture when used with reference to the depression of 14 years ago and the huge demand for labor during the war years. Labor problems date back as far as 1350 A. D. At that time the great plague took place in England and people died in such large numbers that there was a serious labor shortage Mr. Kenyon then went on to give a history of the organization of labor into unions. The earliest known labor union was organized in 1790, but not until 1886. when the Knights of Labor was formed with 700,000 members, did labor unionize into a large organization. the Knights of Labor lasted only six years, and not until the American Federation of Labor was started in 1900 were there any strong unions. With the A. F. of L. came the institution of collective bargaining Mr. Kenyon then described the labor management relations during the war and at the present time. He ended his talk with the statement that management is not hostile to labor unions as such, but to some of the corollary philosophies which have developed in the movement. President Varney then asked for further business. and Al Laws gave a short resume of the coming meetings The meeting was then adjourned. Affiliates With National Organization A dera nizatin own de the Associatio california Scientists was Institute of Technology in November 1945. Purposes of the Association will be to study the problems associated with the relationship between and scientific de velopments, with special emphasis on problems of atomic power; to promote research. particularly nuclear research; to cooperate with other groups which are working to prevent the destructive use of energy, and to convince the public at large of the necessity for taking action designed to achieve this goal. At a special meeting of the new organization December 19. addressed by Dr. J. R. Oppenheimer. former head of the Los Alamos bomb project and by Dr. Linus Pauling, the membership voted to affiliate with the American Federation of Scientists, the national group formed to gather and disseminate information concerning Page 16 developments in science insofar as they affect world peace and the general welfare. Membership in the American Federation of Scientists is open to local associations with at least 25 "qualified" members. Qualified individuals (for voting purposes in the Federation shall be natural scientists, mathematic-ians. or engineers active in scientific works with a minimum of a hachelor's degree or its equivalent, in science or engineering. Physics Research (Continued from Page 3) have been made. To others, however. who see the value of such things to all engineering applications. as well as to those whose minds are only satisfied when everything is finally in order. this presents a challenging problem. At the present time. work is under way in a great many academic and industrial lahoratories on what is roughly designated as the "theory of solids" On the other hand. the field of research that is now so much in the public eye as to be a possible source of embarrassment to physicists, is that of nuclear physics. In a sense, nuclear physics began with the discovery of radio-activity. Its progress was slow until the early when patient and persistent efforts of physicists in the Cavendish Laboratory at Cambridge began to show results, and the first atomic nucleus was broken down. After that time interest grew rate. until the tremendous expenditure of the recent war produced results in the application of nuclear physics to the destruction of people and cities that has brought it to the attention of every thinking person. Most physicists are very unhappy because of the emphasis that has been put upon the destructive possibilities of the results, but many of them believe that by continued research and investigation this new source of energy can he made adaptable to extensive peacetime uses, and to uses that may tend to alleviate some of the causes of war. NUCLEAR RESEARCH Most active physics laboratories, both academic and industrial, are now making extensive preparations for nuclear research. It can be done in a variety of ways, but characteristic of most of these methods is the necessity for relatively large installations and equipment. are those who think that such research should be operated and sponsored by the Government. But the Government has not yet decided to what extent and in what way it may contribute to research of this kind. others who think research would be much more fruitful if sponsored entirely by individual groups. In the mean-time, active preparations are being made in the Kellogg Radiation Laboratory and the Norman Bridge Laboratory at California Institute of Technology for a resumption of nuclear research at something like the point where it was dropped in 1911. Some of the advances during the war can be turned to advantage. but. in general, it is a laborious process of attempting to recover the ground lost while developing lethal weapons of one kind or another. Herbert Ingersoll '26 Herhert Ingersoll was killed December 15. 1944, in Suhic Bay, when he was a prisoner of the Japs aboard a prison ship which was sunk. Herb was in action on Bataan. His wife has received the Silver Star Citation. ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE MONTHLY Dr. William Houston to Be Rice President On March 1, Dr. William V. Houston, professor of physics, and chairman of the Department of Physics, Mathematics and Electrical Engineering at California Institute of Technology, leaves the Institute to become president of Rice Institute at Houston, Texas. John T. Scott, chairman of the board of trustees of Rice Institute, announced the appointment of Dr. Houston who succeeds Dr. Edgar Odell Lovett, president of Rice Institute since its organization in 1908. Dr. Lovett will continue to serve as president emeritus. Dr. Houston received his B.A. and B.Sc. from Ohio State University in 1920 and his Ph.D. from the same Institution in 1925. He came to C.I.T. in 1925, and his work at the Institute has won him a national reputation in the field of physics. Since Rice Institute, like C.I.T., is a school in which the fundamentals of engineering and science are supplemented by a generous study of the humanities, Dr. Houston's career will continue in an educational atmos. phere congenial to him. All of the Institute Staff and alumni wish Dr. Houston success and satisfaction in his new duties. New Associate Dean Appointed At a meeting of the Board of Trustees of the California Institute of Technology held on December 3, 1945, Foster assistant professor of Physics was appointed Associate Dean of Freshmen. L. Winchester Jones re- mains Associate Dean of Upper Classmen, and the title of Franklin Thomas is changed to Dean of Students rather than Dean of Upper Classmen. Fill in and send to: News Editor, Engineering and Scienco Monthly 1201 East California Street, Pasadona 4, Calif. Namo Class_ Home address Information about myself (marriage, position, type of work, change of position or location, etc.) Information about another alumnus Name. Class.. JANUARY 1946 MISSING ADDRESSES Tho residence, business, or military addresses of the following Alumni Office.-Editor Name Class Aggeler, William F....'25 Alexander, Chas. K..'37 Allen, Robert N. Anissmoff, Constantin ..'26 Applegate, Lindsay M Arnold, '33 '38 '14 '40 Name Walla Bell, Richard W... '40 '41 '22 Bennett, Foster C. Berry, Frederick Biddle, Russell Blackman, Roy ''41 Briggs, Thomas H., '39 Call, Raymond Campbell, John S Chang-Hung-Yuan Chao, Chung-Yao Chase, Carl T..... Cheng, Ju. Yung Clark, John D.. Cook, David E... Cox, Charles S... '29 '39 "25 '39 '15 '26 '41 '24 '26 '30 *26 '34 '40 '37 '28 .. 30 '34 '41 '44 '22 '27 Cox, Raymond E Curci, Harold V. 44 Davidson, Leonard E...'00 '33 Djanab, Kamal '38 '37 Easton, Robert L. '39 '30 '26 :22 .26 '21 Hugh B *32 Frye, Calvin B... '31 Fuetsch, Frederic T.'38 Garrett, James R. Gates, Clinton E. .11 :30 Gentner, William E '40 Gershzohn, Morris Gillies, Kobert '38 .22 Gilliland, Ted R. ."27 Go, Chong-Hu Goering, Kenneth J. Goodhue, Elbridge A. '39 "20 Gould, Martin Graham, Thomas C.. .."28 Granger, Warne E Graul, Donald P. .26 Gray, Boris A... '37 '24 Green, Wm. Jeffrey...'40 .35 *29 .40 .25 '26 :42 . 33 '40 .32 '31 Henry nuel Andre Steph rich inthro Norm: aul A. dwarc Hug Alfre Jr. ..... Koons, Harry M.. Labanauskas, ..'30 •38 -'38 .38 '35 '30 .30 .44 '35 Levy, Henri A. Lewis, Stanley M. MacKnight, Ro Magden, John L Marsland, John E ..32 .35 -'36 .']l '38 '33 .27 Martin, R. S Matthews, Elmo S. '28 .32 .35 .36 H McDaniel, Gene McFadden, Wn McLeish, Chas. W. McIntosh, Jame ..34 .'38 .34 '40 Louis H.'27 Michal, Edwin B... .33 '30 '35 '41 '37 Thos. S.'38 .28 Morgenstierne, S. S.'32 De Wolfe O..... '31 Murdock, Keith '33 Murphy, Jos. N.. Myers, Charles S. .41 Neal, Wilson H.. '39 Nelson, Julius ....'29 Page 17 Name Class Newton, Walter L. 14 Norquest, Kenneth S..'39 Nysewander, Cecil W. '38 Odell, Raymond H '37 Ofsthun, Sidney Oiman. Samuel. A. *38 •29 Orr, James M. *38 Overhage. Carl '31 Parker. Percy E. 26 Parish, Elliott W 39 Parry, H. Dean. '37 Peters. Ralph '41 Peterson, Frank F. *27 Pierce, John R. *33 Plank, Dick A.... '33 Portman. Herman G., Jr. 35 Putt, Donald L Ravitz, Sol F.. Reynolds, Roland W...'27 Name Schoeller, Chas. Schultz, John '35 Shaw. Shores, '41 '37 :05 Smith. Smith, Smith Smith Snow. Kuchardson, Omar B...'30 Ridenour, Steele. F. *42 36 '25 '37 '33 36 *26 *41 *41 *39 Wm. Rinehart, John S.. Robertson. Francis A. Robertson, Stone. Stone, Stone. W.. Jr. Sutton. Romoli, John A. Rosencranz, Richard, Jr. '38 Rumbaugh, L. H. '32 Rupert, Claud S... ?41 Russell, Richard L... "33 Russell, Wm. J., Jr.'43 Sandberg, Edward C...'29 Saurenman, Dean F... '33 Schafer, Scherb, Ivan Saney '36 ..'35 Schlecter, Arthur H...'33 Tatom. Taylor, F. *36 '24 .40 '38 :36 *36 '34 :29 '32 *39 *18 Thoma Tieman Tilker. Tobin, Bernard Towler, John W.. Turner, Francis '32 *28 *41 *38 '40 '30 Life Insurance Annuities LYLE H. CHENEY New York Life Insurance Company RYan 1-6191 Security Building SYcamore 2-7141 Pasadena, 1, Calif VROMAN'S Sy: 3-1171 Ry: 1-6669 Boot & Storiod . Office Equipmen 1271 E. Colorado St INSURANCE BROKERS EMETT & CHANDLER W. P. STORY BLDC.OS ANGELES TRinity 8881 ATKINSON LABORATORY LOS ANGELES Photographic CALIFORNIA Photographic Balsh B. Altinson, Chemicals Page 18 Name Class Ibert ....'29 Leonard F. 36 William :28 *27 *40 PERSONALS T WiLL be helpful if readers will send personal items concerning themselves and others to the Alumni Office. Great interest has been shown in these col-umns, but more information is required. Do not hesitate to send in facts about :42 yourself, such as change of position or location, present job, technical accom- '29 plishments, etc. Please help. *31 -Editor. '37 '27 :24 *40 *32 '32 '38 31 *34 1918 CORLISS A. BERCAW, who holds the position of district sales manager for General Motors Corp., electro-motive division, Chicago, Ill., made a business trip to Los Angeles in November in connection with testing a 6,000 h. p. diesel electric locomotive between Salt Lake City and Los Angeles on the Union Pacific. :25 '32 H.'41 .40 ..'37 '25 •28 *38 ALFRED A. NEWTON passed away on November 12 in a Boise, Idaho, hospital of cerebral hemorrhage. Mr. Newton was er route home from Seattle, where he had gone to meet his sister on her return to the states after liberation from a Japanese B. *26 33 Wolfe, '41 Wolochow, David '24 Wyckoff, Donald *44 Yates. Donald N '39 Yensen, Trygve D Yost, *27 Don *26 Zahorski, Adam T. :31 Zimmerman, Don Z..'36 in civic affairs in the city of Santa Monica, Calif., where he lived and was professionally a civil engineer, holding an executive city engineer of the City of San Diego and assumed office on the first of December. Mr. Smith was city manager at Ontario, Calif., for six years, resigning to take the San Diego position. BLEITZ CAMERA COMPANY "The West's Largest Photo Supply House" 5338 Hollywood Blvd. Calif. Don Bleitz Rotary Positive Pumps Blowers Sutorbilt "Is Well Built" 008 E. Slauson Av os Angeles, 11, Cal Superchargers FANS D. DWIGHT TAYLOR Consulting Physicist Special Engineering Calculations Numerical Integration-Subdivision Calculations 234 E. Colorado Street, Pasadena 1, Calif. SYcamore 6-5673 TECHNICAL DESIGN COORDINATOR CO. Offers metric or lispective Serimay DraWingiled Line and Air Brush Illustrations, Etc. 6218 Ventura Boulevar STate 4-4905 ncino. Cal ANgelus 0580 ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE MONTHLY O. S. LARABEE, a lieutenant-colonel in the Army, has been discharged from mili-any servin an haephone co. he South 1926 DOCTOR A. M. BALL, employed by the Hered e Pale during the ton, pal of November. Dr. Ball has been involved in the development of rocket propellants. 1927 COLONEL TED COMBS returned to the states by plane from Tokyo in November and is now living at Long Beach, Calif. Colonel Combs's last assignment was with the Construction Brigade, Sixth Army. COMMANDER R. T. ROSS has been separated from the Navy for several weeks. Commander Ross was stationed at Pearl Harbor in charge of personnel work for fleet schools. EDWIN W. TEMPLIN, formerly Re le phow emalora oriethe Electrica, Research Products of Western Electric Co., at Hollywood, Calif. 1929 BEVERLY F. FREDENDALL has joined the organization of Frederick Hart & Co., Inc., of Poughkeepsie and New York City, which makes Hartron and Recordgraph sound recording equipient. Mr. Freden- dall was formerly with N. B.C., working both in New York and Chicago. LESLIE SCOTT is reported on his way home from Berlin, and expected to be back in California by Christmas. Les was lieutenant-colonel and commanded the 208th Engineer Combat Battalion under the First and Ninth Armies from Cherbourg across France and Germany until they became part of Task Force Berlin, TOM EVANS has taken over the duties of head of the civil engineering depart- ment at Georgia Tech. Tom was a lieuten-ant-colonel in the U. S. Army Engineers, on duty in the Pentagon Building during the war. LIEUTENANT COLONEL WALTER GRIMES, after serving two months in the South Pacific theater, returned in September and is now in San Francisco. 1930 DAVID SHEFFET visited on the campus in October. David is working in the lab- oratory of Stanolind Oil and Gas Co., as research group supervisor. LIEUTENANT-COMMANDER FRANK H. FORD visited on the campus early in November while on terminal leave. working in ship repair and battle damage and over a year in the European theater, at which time he was engaged in rebuild. ing the French fleet. Frank is married and father of a son, Preston, 18 months of age. C. E. BUFFUM visited the Institute late in November on a vacation trip to southern Mr. Buffum is technical group supervisor in the research laboratory of the Stanolind Oil and Gas Co., Tulsa, Okla. F. W. HUTCHINSON left the Univer-position as full professor at Pur- due University. JANUARY 1946 LEWIS H. GOSS has just been engineer of Brawley, Calif. Lewis was previously employed at the U.S Engineers' office. LAWRENCE HALLANGER, who spent some time during the South Pacific theater in the service of Pan American Airways and the Navy as an aerological oficer, is now located with Pan Amer ican at San Francisco. COMMANDER HARALD OMSTED, who has returned to the states from being in command of the 94th Construction Bat-talion, is now on terminal leave. mander Omsted's executive officer has been Crawford '33, and he was relieved by Commander Perry Boothe LIEUTENANT-COMMANDER GEORGE W. VAN OSDOL is stationed at San Francisco in the assistant industrial manager's office, the duties of which are radar installation and maintenance and removals. George is the father of a son and daughter, aged five and a half and two and a half LIEUTENANT ROBERT P. JONES is hone on terminal leave after tioned 19 months in the Admiralty Islands. JOHN C. STICK, JR., has been a member of the staff of the division of physical war research at Duke University for the past three years. With the closing of the LIEUTENANT-COMMANDER ERICK PEHOUSHEK, having service three and one-half years, has been released from service and intends to make his home in California. Commander Pehou-shek was attached to the Shangri-la, Task which made a carrier raid on Japan near the end of the war. NEWELL POTTORF is employed in the patent department of Stanolind Oil and Gas Co., in Tulsa, RAYMOND F. H. BOOTHE Angel for Parkinson & Parkinson, of Los Angeles, Calif. ALAN GROBECKER is working with Gilfllan Bros. as a design engineer. was a lieutenant in the Navy before dis- ANTHONY EASTON was married December 3 in New York City to Peggy DOCTOR WILLIAM F. NASH, formerl instructor of mechanical engineering at the Institute, is now a metallurgist with Naval Research Laboratory in DONALD HUDSON, assistant professor in mechanical Seate of abse e Trom nie Inine and i employed with Naval Ordnance Research CAPTAIN CHARLES A. MORSE has been discharged from military is working at the Southern California Telephone Co., Los Angeles, Calif PRIVATE RALPH W. JONES, JR., has Works at Pasco, Wash. (Manhattan Engineering District). Until October 1, when entered service, Ralph was employed with C.I.T. Section 5, Chemical Engineer- LIEUTENANT BARRY DIBBLE is home on terminal leave and intends to locate in southern California. Barry has been at Iwo Jima, Okinawa, and Tinian with Patrol Bombing Squadron 118 and later with the U.S. S. Curtis. LIEUTENANT-COMMANDER B. F. BEANFIELD has transferred his address from Resident Inspector of Naval Material, Philadelphia, to the same at Brooklyn, N. Y. ROLAND STONE, who has been working at Inyokern, is now employed by the Superior Honey Co. of Los Angeles. MAJOR PAUL ENGELDER, who has been in active service with the Marines in the Pacific area since October, 1941, is expecting an early return to civilian status and an opportunity to return to the Insti tute for graduate work. ENSIGN CYNOR BIDDISON is a navigator aboard the store ship "Valentine" Ensign Biddison brought his ship through the typhoon in the Okinawa area to ride the storm out for two days while waves broke over the flying bridge of the ship. At the end of the year, Ensign Bid-dison expects to put into San Francisco for another cargo, then return to sea for an- CARL SCHRADER visited the Institute ployed by Bureau Ships, Navy Department, Washington, D. C. MAJOR GILBERT VAN DYKE returned from Asheville, N. C., Headquat-ters Weather Service and is now a reserve officer on inactive status. Major Van Dyke was stationed 18 months at Nome, Alaska, a stepping-off point for lend-lease to Rus-sia, and also spent seven months at Ed-monton, Alberta, Canada. MAJOR FRED ODER just completed a course at the Command and General Staff School at Ft. Leavenworth, Kan., and will return to headquarters at Asheville, N.C. DOCTOR R. C. BRUMFIELD has changed positions from Aerojet Engineering Corp. to a civil service job. He is the father of a baby girl. CAPTAIN GERALD P. FOSTER, a captain in the Marine Corps, is coming back to the states soon. 1941 ENSIGN STANLEY STROUD is stationed at the U. S. submarine base, New London, Conn. LIEUTENANT (j.g.) ROGER WAL-LACE reported to the China Lake pilot plant, Inyokern, Calif., from European duty. 1942 LIEUTENANT PAUL VEENHUYZEN, who since 1942 has been attached to Naval Page 19 LIEUTENANT EARLE A. CARR has been transferred to Mare Island, Calif., to serve in the electronics division. Lieut. Carr is the father of a baby boy, Wayne, born October 31. DWAIN BOWEN, who has spent the past three years as research associate at the radiation laboratory at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, has returned to the Institute for graduate work. ALVIN R. PIATT has opened an office in Long Beach, Calif., in which he will be engaged work. in product and machine design MAJOR RAYMOND C. BAIRD is on terminal leave until January. Major Baird returned from Iwo Jima where he was in charge of the Army Air Force Weather Service, serving ground, sea, and air forces. Major Baird was at Atsugi Air Base in Japan on the day the surrender was signed, for the purpose of getting Japanese weather interception data. JOHN MILES resigned his position at Lockheed Aircraft, Ine., to join the staff in the electrical engineering department at U. C. L. A. 42 has taken Miles's former position with 1943 LIEUTENANT (j. g.) GLENN BRACKEN prior to Day spent months at Vernon, duty with naval in engineering inspection charge of supervising tests relative to the acceptability of material purchased by the Navy for war materials. Lieut. Bracken served three months on sea duty as an officer of Pacific patrol. STANLEY SNOWDEN, an instructor in the physics department of the Institute, is CHECK YOUR INSULATION PROBLEM INDUSTRIAL PLANTS PETROLEUM REFINERIES POWER PLANTS FACTORIES PROCESSING REFRIGERATION SHIPS MARINE HAS THE ANSWERS Marine RSULATIO ENGINEERING & SUPPLY CO. 941 East Second Street • Los Angeles • Michigan 8071 Page 20 the father of a son, Peter, born on November 7. ALBERT T. ELLIS is a member of the scientific staff, Columbia University, located in Di- vision of War Researc New York, N.X. Empire State Building, 1944 ENSIGN LEWIS L. GRIMM and Miss Edith May Barton were married on August 2 at Yorba Linda, Calif. ENSIGN CHARLES G. ALMQUIST is stationed aboard the "Mighty Midas" in the vicinity of the Philippines. Ensign Almquist reports, "The Philippines is the country of blue waters, green islands, and red sunsets- -and temperatures of 100° and rain of 20 to 30 inches a month." F. ENSIGN WILLIAM T. COLLINGS has been appointed aide to the commanding officer of the Seabee Base at Camp Endi-cott, R. I. SECOND LIEUTENANT CLIFFORD CUMMINGS, Signal Corps, spent a 10-day leave at his home in Venice, Calif., late in Navember. When leave moated, Cheated route to the Army of Occupation. Theater He was an instruc- tor for four months at Camp Edison, N. J. LIEUTENANT J. R. BORDEN is an instructor at Camp Edison in Navy navigational type radar for installation on Army type transports. LIEUTENANT LEROY SANDERS, formerly an instructor at Camp Edison, left in November for Germany to instruct in Signal Corps work. ENSIGN GEORGE SHOR, communica- tions officer on the U.S. S. Sarita (AKA 39), is engaged in the task of bringing veterans back from Japan and Okinawa areas. JACK WARREN is now a civilian and is employed by Knudsen Creamery Co., Los Angeles. Jack was an aviation cadet at Tyndall Field, Fla., for four months, taking radar training for P-61's. ENSIGN THOMAS W. NORSWORTHY is serving as assistant engineer on the destroyer U.S. S. Bache. ENSIGN JOHN W. MARSHALL transferred from Engineering Division, Bureau of Aeronautics, Washington, D. C., to Ames Aeronautic Laboratory, Moffatt Field, Calif ENSIGN R. G. MeANLIS, engineering officer on the destroyer U.S.S. Uhlmann, returned to the states early in December. His ship was docked at Seattle for over-haul, after which it will be taken to San Diego for inactive duty. 1945 ENSIGN RICHARD E. SPRINGER, commissioned at Notre Dame Midshipmen's School, left for St. Simons Island to attend tactical radar school for two months, after which he will be assigned sea duty. ENSIGN HALCYON BALL, commis- sioned at Columbia Midshipmen's School, visited the Institute the middle of Novem-ber. Ensign Ball was assigned to a troop ship (AP.126) as a deck officer. ENSIGN EUGENE BOLSTER, commissioned at Notre Dame, visited at the Institute in November and was to report to San Francisco for assignmet on a patrol craft for overseas duty. ENSIGN ROBERT F. SCHMOKER left Ft. Schuyler for Camp Endicott, R. I ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE MONTHLY CUSTOM FOUNDRY FACILITIES FOR HIGHER GRADES OF BRASS - BRONZE ALUMINUM - LEAD As specialists in the founding of nonferrous alloys we invite submission of difficult problems in our field. Our facilities include completely modern equipment and the "know how" gained from experience to uniform castings of dependable quality. Physical and chemical analysis furnished when re-quired. Write for Illustrated Bulletin 8686 Rheem Ave., Southgate, Calif. Suburb of los Angeles Engineering Designers & Draftsmen, Aerodynamicists and Stress Analysts ...will find excellent opportunity for advancement on Biggest Research and Development Projects in our history MADE to int THE JOB American offers a complete steel fabrication service to meet all individual pressure tank requirements: engineer-ing, designing, fabrication and assembly. The knowledge, skill and experience of American Engineers, plus fine materials, is your assurance of the best. There is no obligation for preliminary consultation regarding your pressure tank requirements.... your inquiries are invited. AMERICAN PIPE & STEEL CORPORATION Alhambra, Manufacturers and Distributors California NORTH AMERICAN AVIATION INCORPORATED Write E. R. CARTER, Engineering Department 5601 Imperial Highway, Inglewood, California today... - City of San Francisco pacemaker for trains to come Every three days a sleek golden yellow streamliner speeds eastward from San Francisco into the dusk, climbing up and over the High Sierra, through Reno in the night, skimming across Great Salt Lake on the spectacular Lucin Causeway, clicking away the smooth miles to Chicago. If you have ridden the Streamliner City of San Fran-cisco, you remember the gliding speed, the spacious cars and luxurious sleeping rooms, the superb food and service. It is like a fine hotel, on wheels. On the City of San Francisco, the Daylights, the Lark and the Sunbeams, Southern Pacific tested many modern ideas in years of daily service. This experience gave us a head start in designing the trains to come. 0m m to ... Southern Pacific is planning more streamliners. We will have them on our four major routes as fast as conditions permit. These new trains will be the finest the world has seen. Watch for the new Southern Pacific streamliners. Then it will be more exciting than ever to "try the train." S•P The friendly Southern Pacific